Generally, involuntary manslaughter makes up the majority of nonlethal violent crime victimizations.

An explosion of research into the effects of shall-issue laws on violent crime was triggered in 1997 by the publication of analyses using county-level data from 1977 to 1992. Using these data, Lott and Mustard (1997) concluded that states implementing shall-issue laws saw significant decreases in rates of violent crime, murder, rape, and assault. Their "more guns, less crime" conclusion was immediately controversial and led to a proliferation of studies exploring the robustness of the study's findings to alternate model specifications and to improvements or expansions to the data series. The table below lists studies from this early period of responses to Lott and Mustard (1997), as well as their counter-responses.

Two important reviews of the scientific literature on gun policy effects—one by the National Research Council (NRC), a part of the National Academy of Sciences (NRC, 2004), and one by the Community Preventive Services Task Force, established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (Hahn et al., 2005)—evaluated this early literature and reached nearly identical conclusions. In their review of existing studies examining shall-issue laws, Hahn et al. (2005) found insufficient evidence for determining the effect of such laws on violent crime. NRC (2004) reviewed much of the same literature and reanalyzed data that were common to many of these analyses: a panel data set originally spanning 1977–1992, then expanded through 2000. After reviewing many of the studies listed in the table below, the NRC (2004) panel, with one member dissenting, concluded:

Some studies find that right-to-carry laws reduce violent crime, others find that the effects are negligible, and still others find that such laws increase violent crime. The committee concludes that it is not possible to reach any scientifically supported conclusion because of (a) the sensitivity of the empirical results to seemingly minor changes in model specification, (b) a lack of robustness of the results to the inclusion of more recent years of data (during which there were many more law changes than in the earlier period), and (c) the statistical imprecision of the results. The evidence to date does not adequately indicate either the sign or the magnitude of a causal link between the passage of right-to-carry laws and crime rates. Furthermore, this uncertainty is not likely to be resolved with the existing data and methods. If further headway is to be made, in the committee's judgment, new analytical approaches and data are needed.

a These studies are treated in our analysis as being superseded by later studies by the same authors.

b This same paper was earlier circulated as Lott, Plassmann, and Whitley (2002).

In addition to the sensitivity of results to minor changes in model specification noted by the NRC report, these early studies suffered from multiple serious problems with data and methodology that lead us to discount their value for informing this synthesis of evidence on the effects of shall-issue laws. These problems include the following:

• Lott and Mustard's data set used county population values that did not correspond to the crime statistics available for counties, especially those with weak reporting of crime statistics (Maltz and Targonski, 2002). Lott and Whitley (2003) discounted these and other concerns about the quality of county crime rate data, describing them as typical of the types of measurement error commonly encountered in statistical analyses. Furthermore, they suggested that the findings in Lott (2000) persisted even when analyzing the subset of counties with minimal error in crime statistics. After reviewing this exchange, the NRC panel disagreed with Lott and Whitley that the original effects reported by Lott (2000) survived this test: "The committee concludes that it is at least possible that errors in the [Uniform Crime Reporting] data may account for some of Lott's results" (NRC, 2004, p. 137).
• Many of these studies followed the example of Lott and Mustard (1997) by including arrest rates as a model covariate. This led to these analyses excluding large numbers of counties that had no crimes of a given type and therefore an undefined arrest rate, an approach that differentially excluded locations where the introduction of shall-issue laws could have led only to an increase in crime rates (Ayres and Donohue, 2003a).
• There were errors in the classification of shall-issue states in the Lott and Mustard data set that were only later corrected (Ayres and Donohue, 2003a). There were multiple errors detected in the data sets used by Lott (1998b, 2000) and by Plassmann and Whitley (2003), and Plassmann subsequently acknowledged these errors to the NRC (NRC, 2004, p. 136). Correction of these errors eliminated many of the significant effects reported by Plassmann and Whitley (2003) (Ayres and Donohue, 2003a).
• Nearly all of the studies listed in the table above failed to control for serial correlation in the panel data set; the exceptions were Duggan (2001), Olson and Maltz (2001), Plassmann and Whitley (2003), Ayres and Donohue (2003a, 2003b), and Helland and Tabarrok (2004). This led to gross exaggerations of the statistical significance of study results and greatly elevated the risk of finding statistically significant effects that were in the opposite direction of any true effect (Schell, Griffin, and Morral, 2018; Moody and Marvell, 2018b; Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang, 2014; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004).
• Most of the studies used the large number of covariates first included in the Lott and Mustard (1997) analyses, which had a ratio of estimated parameters to observations of between one to eight and one to 14 across analyses. When the proportion of estimated parameters is this high, there is considerable risk that the statistical models are overfit, and the law effects that they estimate thus may not be generalizable. Among few exceptions, the models of Ludwig (1998) and Moody (2001) did not suffer from this problem.

Finally, we regard a majority of these early studies as having been superseded by later work by the same authors that improved upon their earlier contributions to this literature. As a result, we focus on their later efforts to evaluate the effect of shall-issue laws.

We first describe studies published since 2004 that aimed to estimate the effects of concealed-carry laws on violent crime using county-level data. We then turn to studies that focused on state-level data, then studies that employed city-level data. We conclude by discussing results from a set of studies in which the objective was not to identify the effects of shall-issue laws but that nonetheless present estimates that may be considered part of the evidence base for how concealed-carry policies influence violent crime outcomes (e.g., some studies of the effects of abortion rates on violent crime include shall-issue laws as a covariate in their models).

County-Level Studies

Many important shortcomings of county-level crime data identified through the early studies of shall-issue laws (see the table above) resulted from the fact that large numbers of county police agencies do not report crime statistics to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Moreover, the way that county crime statistics address these missing data changed abruptly in the early 1990s, making data from the earlier part of the series not comparable with later data, according to the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data (undated). Nevertheless, several analyses have continued to use county-level crime data to evaluate law effects, or they have used homicide data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s National Vital Statistics System, which has less of a problem with missing data (Loftin, McDowall, and Fetzer, 2008).

Roberts (2009) used the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports to analyze the effect of shall-issue laws on intimate partner homicide rates using monthly county-level data spanning 1985–2004. The author found that (the more-restrictive) may-issue laws significantly increased intimate partner total homicides by 71 percent compared with shall-issue laws, but may-issue (compared with shall-issue) laws had an uncertain effect on intimate partner firearm homicides. The author also found uncertain effects of concealed-carry bans compared with shall-issue laws on either overall or firearm-related intimate partner homicides. However, neither analysis clustered standard errors at the state level, so serial correlation that was unaccounted for in the panel data likely resulted in underestimated standard errors and correspondingly misleading tests of statistical significance.

Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) analyzed the county-level data set used in NRC (2004), extended through 2006, and state-level data through 2010. The authors corrected the NRC analyses for several errors that they identified, including data-coding errors related to the timing of shall-issue legislation, an endogenous control variable (arrest rate), and a failure to cluster standard errors at the state level. The authors argued that the decision in NRC (2004) not to cluster the standard errors of the county-level analyses at the state level was incorrect and showed that confidence intervals (CIs) were badly misestimated when clustering was not accounted for. In their preferred county-level specification including state trend effects, they found no statistically significant effects of shall-issue laws on either the level or trend of any of seven crime rates, and they found only one suggestive effect across the 14 effects they tested.

Moody et al. (2014), responding to an earlier version of the Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) paper, reestimated their models after adding many more demographic control variables, robbery and assault rates, and a lagged outcome as a predictor meant to capture unmeasured state differences associated with crime rates. Moody et al. (2014) offered statistical tests suggesting that the model with added covariates predicted the data significantly better, which the authors interpreted as evidence that estimates in Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) suffered from omitted-variable biases. The revised hybrid model results in Moody et al. (2014) suggested that shall-issue laws significantly reduced the trends in rape and murder rates. They found no significant association between shall-issue laws and either assault or robbery. The fact that their model predicted a given outcome better than the Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) model is not sufficient to demonstrate the claim that the latter's model suffered from omitted-variable bias or that the model preferred by Moody et al. (2014) offered a less biased estimate. An overfit model can predict the data exceptionally well while producing biased and unreliable coefficient estimates.

Using county-level panel data spanning 1979–2000, Durlauf, Navarro, and Rivers (2016) examined the sensitivity of analyses that estimate the relationship between shall-issue laws and violent crime. They reported that use of population weights may lead to inefficient estimates and upward biases in estimates of the effect of shall-issue laws on crime. In addition, they found that hybrid or spline models are preferred to dummy models and that models that allow for heterogeneity in the effect of laws (including effects that vary with region, rates of gun ownership, and the level of urbanization in an area) outperform models that do not allow for variation in effects. For the spline model specifications that the authors assessed to perform best for the outcome of violent crime, they estimated that shall-issue laws increase violent crime in the first year after law passage and that violent crime continues to increase in subsequent years. The authors concluded that, overall, there was substantial variation in the estimated effects for each model across the model space analyzed and, thus, there was little evidence that shall-issue laws generate either an increase or a decrease in crime on average.

Crifasi et al. (2018b) evaluated the effects of shall-issue laws and four other gun laws on homicides in large, urban counties between 1984 and 2015. Using a Poisson model that included year fixed effects, random effects for counties, and county-level demographic and economic covariates, the authors found that shall-issue laws were associated with a significant increase in firearm homicide rates. Specifically, after implementing these laws, counties would be expected to see 1.04 times more firearm homicides (95-percent CI = 1.02, 1.06). The authors also included a comparison outcome, nonfirearm homicides, on the theory that, if the effect of shall-issue laws is correctly estimated, it should be found only for firearm homicides, not nonfirearm homicides. However, their estimate for nonfirearm homicides was virtually identical to the estimate for firearm homicides (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.03; 95-percent CI = 1.00, 1.06), which raises questions about the model or the authors' theory that nonfirearm homicides should be unaffected by the law. The paper did not describe any corrections for serial correlation in the data used, without which incorrect claims of statistical significance would be expected to proliferate (Schell, Griffin, and Morral, 2018; Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang, 2014; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004).

State-Level Studies

Hepburn et al. (2004) evaluated the effects of shall-issue laws on homicide rates using data from 1979 to 1998 in a study that came out too late to be reviewed in either the NRC (2004) or the Hahn et al. (2005) reviews of firearm research. Using a negative binomial model with two-way fixed effects and controlling for demographic and economic variables, including a proxy for gun ownership, the authors found uncertain effects for shall-issue laws on state homicide rates. Estimated effects remained uncertain in subgroup analyses of adults aged 25 or older and of white men aged 35 or older (see the first figure below).

Rosengart et al. (2005) examined the effect of several state gun laws, including shall-issue laws, on firearm homicides and total homicides using state-level data. One limitation was that the data covered only 1979–1998, and other studies have shown the sensitivity of results to shorter periods, partly because shorter periods include observation of fewer states that have adopted shall-issue laws. The policy variable was specified as a dummy variable (indicating that a shall-issue law was or was not in place). The authors found suggestive effects that shall-issue laws increased firearm and total homicide rates. French and Heagerty (2008) tested the sensitivity of these results and similarly concluded that shall-issue laws had a suggestive effect consistent with the laws increasing firearm-related homicide rates, although estimates varied across specifications. However, the Rosengart et al. (2005) paper, and presumably the French and Heagerty (2008) paper, also had an unfavorable ratio of model covariates to observations (less than one to eight), suggesting that the model may have been overfit, and thus its estimates and their CIs may be unreliable.

Martin and Legault (2005) demonstrated that Lott (2000) used incorrect state crime rate estimates that differed substantially from official FBI state estimates. They replicated Lott (2000)'s model despite misgivings about its specification to demonstrate that the effects Lott reported were sensitive to this measurement error. In their replication exercise using state-level crime data from the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports spanning 1977–1992, Martin and Legault (2005)'s estimates showed that shall-issue laws significantly reduced total violent crime and, specifically, aggravated assault. They found only suggestive effects that the laws reduced rates of robbery and murder, as well as uncertain effects on rape (see the second figure below). However, as with Lott (2000), the authors did not statistically adjust for serial correlation in the panel data, and the model's ratio of estimated parameters to observations was less than one to ten, meaning the model may have been overfit, and thus its parameter estimates and their CIs may be unreliable.

Grambsch (2008) conducted a state-level analysis of (total) murder rates (relative to the U.S. murder rate) from 1976 to 2001 using the 25 states that passed shall-issue laws between 1981 and 1996. She found a selection effect among states adopting shall-issue laws—namely, that states that passed shall-issue laws in this period experienced an increasing trend in murder rates prior to adoption relative to other states. Her estimates showed that, after controlling for regression to the mean, there was either an uncertain effect or a significant positive effect of shall-issue laws on relative murder rates (i.e., shall-issue laws increased murder rates) depending on the model used. However, the model finding significant effects (the state fixed-effects model) had fewer than ten observations per estimated parameter, meaning the model may have been overfit, which can lead to unreliable estimates and standard errors. Furthermore, neither model included adjustments for serial correlation in the panel data.

Using a panel of state data, Lott (2010) provided an update of his earlier analyses examining the effect of shall-issue laws on violent crime. His preferred specification included a set of dummy variables that indicated different time intervals before and after shall-issue legislation was in effect for states that passed such legislation. Many of Lott's modeling results were presented as figures and did not indicate statistical significance. Detailed results were provided only for an analysis of homicide rates. These included information on the statistical significance of each coefficient in the model but not for a test comparing post-implementation time intervals with pre-implementation time intervals. Lott interpreted the pattern of effects as demonstrating that homicides declined significantly after implementation of shall-issue laws, but he did not provide test statistics or sufficient description to clarify what specific effect was observed. The author also included coefficients and their statistical significance from dummy and spline models similar to those from his earlier work, but he did not include standard errors or test statistics. All of the preferred models appear to have had a ratio of estimated parameters to observations that was less than one to ten, meaning the model may have been overfit, and thus the reported estimates and their CIs may be unreliable. Similarly, it does not appear that Lott used any adjustments for serial correlation in his panel data, so some of the effects reported as statistically significant might not be after correcting these analyses (Schell, Griffin, and Morral, 2018; Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang, 2014; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004).

DeSimone, Markowitz, and Xu (2013) evaluated the effects of child-access prevention laws on nonfatal injuries using data from 1988 to 2003, but they included sensitivity analyses that controlled for shall-issue laws. Using fixed-effects Poisson regression models, they found that shall-issue laws were significantly associated with firearm assault injuries for children under age 18, as well as for adults. Specifically, their estimate suggests that, after a state implemented a shall-issue law, assault injury rates were more than double what would have been expected without the law (see the second figure below), which would be extraordinary if true. However, the estimated effects of shall-issue laws in this study were based primarily on implementation in one state that changed its law during the study time frame (Arizona); thus, the study offers little evidence that the observed effects are due to the change in the law rather than to other factors affecting the state's assault rate that occurred around the same time the law was changed.

Webster, Crifasi, and Vernick (2014) analyzed state-level data from 1999 to 2010, using generalized least-squares regression models to estimate the effect of shall-issue laws on age-adjusted homicide rates. They found suggestive effects indicating an association between the implementation of shall-issue laws and a 10-percent increase in rates of nonfirearm homicide, a 6-percent increase in rates of total homicide, and an 11-percent increase in rates of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter.[1] However, their estimates showed an uncertain association between shall-issue laws and firearm homicide rates. The statistical model used to arrive at these results used a large number of estimated parameters relative to observations (a ratio of about one to eight), meaning the model may have been overfit, and thus its estimates and their apparent statistical significance could provide little generalizable information about the true causal effects of shall-issue laws.

Gius (2014) examined the effect of shall-issue laws on gun-related murder rates using state-level data from 1980 to 2009. He found that states with may-issue or more-restrictive policies had higher gun-related murder rates than shall-issue states. Relative to states with shall-issue laws, states with more-restrictive firearm-carry policies had rates of firearm homicide that were 11 percent higher (see the second figure below). However, this model did not statistically adjust for the known serial correlation in these panel data, which has been shown to result in misleadingly small standard errors (Schell, Griffin, and Morral, 2018; Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang, 2014; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004). For this reason, the apparently significant effect observed in this study could be invalid.

Using their preferred specification with state-level data from 1979 to 2010 and a dummy, spline, or hybrid specification of shall-issue laws without state trends, Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) found suggestive evidence that shall-issue laws increase assaults by 8 percent (see the first figure below). In the dummy specification, shall-issue laws significantly increased rape by 12 percent, although estimates of this effect from the spline model were uncertain. The authors also found suggestive evidence that shall-issue laws increased rates of robbery, although estimates again became uncertain in other specifications. Effects of shall-issue laws on murder rates were uncertain. The authors tested the sensitivity of their results to less-parsimonious (including the Lott and Mustard [1997] specification) and more-parsimonious demographic specifications; the inclusion of state-specific time trends; the inclusion or exclusion of years that were likely to be influenced by the crack cocaine epidemic, which affected crime rates; and the specification of the policy variable (dummy, spline, hybrid). The authors noted that their results, which showed that the significance and sign of estimated effects varied substantially depending on the specification employed, underscored the sensitivity of gun-crime modeling estimates to modeling decisions.

Moody et al. (2014) and Moody and Marvell (2018a) critiqued several modeling decisions of the Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) paper, as well as an earlier version of that study (Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang, 2011). Foremost, the studies critiqued the decision to treat models without state-specific trends as the preferred ones.[2] Thus, Moody et al. (2014) reestimated the hybrid models in Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014), incorporating state-specific trends and additional covariates into an analysis of state data. In doing so, the authors found, as they had with their county-level analyses, that their specification improved model fit over that of Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014). They also found that the individual states' trends were jointly significant, which they took as evidence supporting the need for their inclusion in the models of shall-issue law effects. Using hybrid models that included state-specific linear trends, Moody et al. (2014) found that shall-issue laws significantly increased assault rate trends and increased robbery rate levels, but the laws also significantly reduced murder rate trends. In an updated analysis that favored using a series of leading and lagging indicators of shall-issue laws over the hybrid model specification, Moody and Marvell (2018a) found largely uncertain effects of shall-issue laws on violent crime outcomes. As noted earlier, neither study demonstrated that its model estimates were less biased than those in Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) or that the Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) model suffered from omitted-variable biases. Furthermore, the state-level analyses of Moody et al. (2014) used a statistical model with a large number of estimated parameters relative to observations (close to one to five), meaning the model may have been overfit, and thus the estimates and inferential statistics may provide little generalizable information about the true causal effects of shall-issue laws.

In a series of analyses by John Donohue and colleagues, Donohue, Aneja, and Weber (2019) provided estimates of the effects of shall-issue laws; the study used updated data covering 1977–2014, during which 33 states implemented these laws. The authors' two-way fixed-effects model—controlling for demographic, economic, and law enforcement factors—indicated uncertain effects on the logged murder and firearm murder rates but significant increases in violent crime and property crime generally.

Donohue, Aneja, and Weber (2019) also described an assessment of the effects of shall-issue laws that relies on constructing synthetic controls for each state that implemented a shall-issue law. Synthetic controls are weighted combinations of states that never implemented the law or that implemented it more than ten years after the treated state, such that, in the period before a state's passage of the law, the temporal pattern of crime in the synthetic control closely matches that in the state. Repeating this procedure for each of 33 states with shall-issue laws, the authors concluded that violent crime increased over a ten-year period in 23 of 31 states with at least ten years of post-implementation data. In aggregate, the authors estimated that, five years after law passage, states with shall-issue laws had violent crime rates that were 7 percent higher than expected, which rose to 14 percent after ten years. The authors calculated significance levels for these estimates using a permutation test designed to estimate the distribution of treatment effects under the assumption that laws have no real effect. They concluded that, after the seventh year post-implementation, states with shall-issue laws had significantly elevated rates of violent crime. Synthetic control methods are relatively new, and especially when controls are made up of just a few states, as they were in this case, their usefulness for identifying causal effects may be compromised (RAND Corporation, 2018, Appendix A).

Barati (2016) explored whether the effect of shall-issue laws depends on whether the legal regime before implementing these laws was one of no issue (i.e., no one is permitted to carry concealed firearms) or may issue. The author used a weighted least squares regression of logged crime rates onto a model with state and year fixed effects; linear state-specific trends; and almost two dozen other social, economic, and legal covariates. When looking at violent crime outcomes, Barati (2016) found only a suggestive effect that the transition from no-issue to shall-issue laws caused a reduction in robberies. However, this model had an unfavorable ratio of estimated parameters to observations (about one to six), meaning the model may have been overfit, and its estimates and CIs may thus be unreliable.

Luca, Malhotra, and Poliquin (2017) used data from 1977 to 2014 to evaluate the effects of various firearm laws on homicide rates among adults aged 21 or older. Although the authors' focus was on background check and waiting-period laws, they included model specifications that additionally controlled for concealed-carry and permitting laws. Their analysis was based on log-linear models adjusting for national trends, state fixed effects, and a limited set of state-level time-varying sociodemographic factors; they found that shall-issue and may-issue laws had uncertain effects on total and firearm homicide rates relative to no-issue regimes. Employing similar models but using data from the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports over a shorter time frame (1986 to 2015), Hamill et al. (2019) similarly found uncertain effects of adopting a shall-issue or permitless-carry regime on overall rates of violent crime, homicide, rape, and aggravated assault; findings for robbery rates showed suggestive but small decreases associated with moving from a more restrictive to a more permissive concealed-carry regime (see the first figure below).

In contrast, using age-adjusted homicide rates and analyzing a shorter time period (1991 to 2015), Siegel et al. (2017b) found that, relative to may-issue laws, shall-issue laws resulted in significantly elevated rates of total homicide and firearm homicide. A shortcoming of the authors' analysis was that it dropped several years of data for six states after 1998, because the CDC began suppressing homicide counts below ten in that year. Nevertheless, the authors report similar results from sensitivity analyses using a different data source, the Supplementary Homicide Reports database, that does not have the same suppression issues. The authors report using "robust standard errors that account for the clustering of observations, serial autocorrelation, and heteroskedasticity" (p. 1927), but they appear to have used a standard error adjustment that accounted for only heteroskedasticity and not the serial correlation that characterized their state-level panel data. Indeed, in a commentary on this study, Donohue (2017)'s replication of Siegel et al. (2017b)'s analyses produced estimated effects with properly clustered standard errors that were nearly twice as large as those shown in Siegel et al. (2017b)'s main analyses. However, even with the increased uncertainty around the effect sizes, the estimated effects of shall-issue laws on total and firearm homicide rates remained positive and statistically significant.

Shi and Lee (2018) estimated a panel data model with interactive fixed effects and spatial dependence in order to evaluate how shall-issue or permitless-carry laws affected crime rates from 1977 to 2012. In contrast with most prior studies of the effects of concealed-carry laws, the authors did not estimate regression models that directly controlled for state-level covariates that likely influence firearm legislation and crime rates (e.g., socioeconomic factors, changes in law enforcement resources). Instead, they accounted for (potentially) nonlinear state-specific time trends as a function of unobserved national time trend factors interacted with state-specific factor loadings that determine the degree to which each state was differentially affected by the time trend factors. Their first-differences models also included a lagged outcome variable and covariates to account for potential spatial spillover effects. Their results were mixed. Some outcomes (e.g., robbery) indicated a significant increase immediately after shall-issue law enactment followed by a declining trend, while other outcomes (e.g., murder) showed significant declines but not until more than five years after law passage. Effects on rape rates and assault rates were uncertain or suggestive, depending on when (i.e., how long after implementation) the effect was assessed. However, for both outcomes showing significant effects, the study's models had an unfavorable ratio of estimated parameters to observations (about one to three for murder rates and one to nine for robbery rates), which suggests that these models may have been overfit and thus produced unreliable estimates and CIs.

Finally, two studies estimated how shall-issue laws affected fatal or nonfatal assaults on police officers (Mustard, 2001; Crifasi, Pollack, and Webster, 2016). Mustard (2001) preferred a spline model, estimating the change in trends before versus after implementation of shall-issue laws for the outcome of felonious police deaths per capita or per full-time equivalent police officer from 1984 to 1996. Across multiple specifications (e.g., Poisson, Tobit), the author tended to find that shall-issue laws had uncertain effects, except when the outcome was measured as police deaths per full-time equivalent officer; in that case, shall-issue laws led to a negative shift in trend that was statistically significant. However, this model had an unfavorable ratio of estimated parameters to observations (about one to seven) and did not account for serial correlation within states, which suggests that the estimated effects and associated CIs may be unreliable. Crifasi, Pollack, and Webster (2016) extended the period of study through 2013 and instead evaluated how shall-issue or permitless-carry laws affected fatal or nonfatal assaults on law enforcement officers, measured as a rate per full-time equivalent officer. The authors found uncertain effects of the laws on fatal assaults but a suggestive effect (p = 0.13) consistent with less-restrictive concealed-carry laws resulting in lower rates of nonfatal assault on law enforcement officers.

City-Level Studies

Kovandzic, Marvell, and Vieraitis (2005) examined the effect of shall-issue laws on violent crime (homicide, robbery, assault, and rape) using panel data from 1980 to 2000 for 189 large U.S. cities. The authors clustered the standard errors at the state level, addressed coding errors in previous research, allowed for a time trend in the effect of shall-issue laws, allowed for city-specific time trends, and conducted analyses that allowed for heterogeneity in the effect of shall-issue laws across states. In their analysis that estimated the average effect of shall-issue laws for all included cities using a dummy model specification, Kovandzic, Marvell, and Vieraitis (2005) found uncertain effects for all of the violent crime outcomes analyzed. These findings were largely consistent when they instead modeled the effects of shall-issue laws as a trend variable, except that their preferred spline models showed effects consistent with shall-issue laws increasing assault rates (a significant effect) and increasing rape rates (a suggestive effect). Their estimates for the effect on assault suggest that shall-issue laws were associated with a 10-percent increase in aggravated assault rates after five years. In examining state-specific effects with their spline models, the authors further found that there were more states where shall-issue laws led to statistically significant increases in crime compared with decreases. However, this study had an unfavorable ratio of model covariates to observations (less than one to ten), meaning the model may have been overfit, and thus its estimates and CIs may be unreliable indicators of the true effects of the laws.

La Valle (2013) analyzed data from 56 cities spanning 1980–2010. The author noted that the analyses "include statistical corrections for variation in sample unit independence," but he did not explicitly mention clustering the standard errors at the state level. La Valle (2013) used a dummy variable specification for the concealed-carry law. In his preferred specification (using interpolated control variables for inter-censal years, population weighted analysis, and a one-year lagged outcome as a covariate), he found that shall-issue laws significantly reduced gun homicides by 15 percent and total homicides by 13 percent (see the first figure below). Results were sensitive to specification, however, and other authors (e.g., Kovandzic, Marvell, and Vieraitis, 2005; Durlauf, Navarro, and Rivers, 2016) have expressed concern that weighting gives undue influence to localities with large populations and worsens, rather than improves, standard error estimation. In unweighted analyses using inter-censal years, La Valle (2013) found that shall-issue laws reduced gun homicides but not total homicides. In La Valle and Glover (2012), which used similar data (panel data on 57 cities from 1980 to 2006) and a similar approach, the authors included separate indicators for may-issue and shall-issue states. In the authors' preferred analysis (with interpolated data for controls for inter-censal years and weighting), shall-issue laws were associated with a significant 23-percent increase in the homicide rate, and may-issue laws were associated with a significant 19-percent decrease in the homicide rate (compared with cities that the authors concluded did not have either a may-issue or shall-issue law). Similarly, shall-issue laws were associated with a significant 32-percent increase in the firearm homicide rate, while may-issue laws were associated with a significant 33-percent reduction in the firearm homicide rate. (No estimates for unweighted data with inter-censal years were provided.) The diametric findings from these two studies further highlight the sensitivity of results to model specification, as well as to how shall-issue laws are classified.

Other Studies

Three studies that focused on the relationship between unmarried fertility or abortions and violent crime included shall-issue laws as a covariate in their models (Donohue and Levitt, 2001; Lott and Whitley, 2007; Kendall and Tamura, 2010). Using data from 1985 to 1997 and estimating weighted least squares with a logged outcome and state and year fixed effects, Donohue and Levitt (2001) found uncertain effects of shall-issue laws on violent crime and murder rates. Analyzing data over a partially overlapping period, from 1976 to 1998, and using a Poisson model that controlled for state and year fixed effects, state-specific linear trends, and time-varying state covariates, Lott and Whitley (2007) found suggestive or significant effects (depending on specification) indicating that murder rates fell approximately 1 percent faster after the adoption of shall-issue laws relative to the rates in states without such policies. Employing a different model specification over a longer period (1957–2002), Kendall and Tamura (2010) estimated that shall-issue laws had a suggestive but small association with reduced rates of murder and uncertain relationships with rates of rape, robbery, and assault.

Zimmerman (2014) extended prior research evaluating the role of private security measures in reducing crime (e.g., see Benson and Mast, 2001). Although the author's focus was on understanding the crime rate implications of changes in employment within four private security occupation groups (security guards, detectives and investigators, security system installers, and locksmiths), he included shall-issue laws as a covariate in the models to account for the potential deterrent effects of allowing private citizens to carry handguns. Estimating linear models with a logged outcome and controlling for state and year fixed effects, state-specific linear trends, a lag of the dependent variable, and time-varying state characteristics, Zimmerman (2014) found that shall-issue laws led to significantly higher rates of murder and assault; estimated effects on robbery rates were suggestive but also consistent with an increase following the passage of shall-issue laws. However, the analyses had a ratio of estimated parameters to observations of less than one to five, and the paper provided no additional evidence to demonstrate model fit. Therefore, in accordance with our review methodology, we discount this evidence because of the possibility that the model was overfit, and thus the estimated effects and their CIs may be unreliable indicators of the true causal effects of the laws.

Manski and Pepper (2018) investigated the sensitivity of shall-issue effect estimates to a range of assumptions by comparing property and violent crime rates in two states under progressively less-restrictive assumptions about how the laws' effects may vary over time or between states. This study compared outcomes in just two states, meaning causal effects were not well identified. Moreover, it treated Virginia's shall-issue law as having been implemented in 1989, when we believe the correct date is 1995. For these reasons, we do not review this paper's results. Applying Bayesian model comparison techniques, Strnad (2007) reanalyzed models of the effects of shall-issue laws from Donohue (2004). In contrast to the approach of Donohue (2004) and many others, Strnad (2007) did not assess the evidence for or against shall-issue laws in terms of how frequently estimates of the effect were statistically significant or were found to have positive (as opposed to negative) estimated effects under different model specifications. Instead, he used model comparison techniques to establish which models fit the data best and to evaluate whether evidence favored models with or without shall-issue effects. He concluded that Donohue's models provided much stronger support for a conclusion that shall-issue laws had little or no effect on most outcomes than Donohue (2004) concluded after examining patterns in the direction and significance levels of these effects. The exceptions were murder, which shall-issue laws appeared to cause to decline gradually, and robbery, which appeared to increase or decrease, depending on the state.

The figures below display the IRRs and CIs associated with the concealed-carry laws examined in the studies published after the NRC (2004) review. The first figure displays the studies for which we found no serious methodological issues, and the second figure displays the studies for which we did find methodological issues. In these figures, we highlight effect estimates based only on dummy-coded models, for reasons discussed in the full report (see Smart et al., 2020, Chapter Two) and in the first edition of this report (RAND Corporation, 2018, Appendix A). We exclude the estimates from Zimmerman (2014) for having a ratio of estimated parameters to observations of less than one to five and thus serious potential issues with model overfit. Furthermore, Lott (2010), Shi and Lee (2018), and Moody and Marvell (2018a) did not provide enough information for us to calculate IRRs and CIs for their effect sizes of interest, so we do not include these in the figures. In addition, the estimates in Durlauf, Navarro, and Rivers (2016) were available only for the spline specification; Kovandzic, Marvell, and Vieraitis (2005) preferred their own spline model; Moody and Marvell (2009) and Moody et al. (2014) offered only a hybrid model; and Manski and Pepper (2018) and Strnad (2007) did not seek to produce a preferred estimate of the effect of shall-issue laws. Because we could not readily calculate unique effect sizes and CIs for these studies, we do not include them in the figures.

This forest plot shows estimates of how this policy affects this outcome, based on the evidence in the studies examined. In particular, the graphic shows the standardized effect sizes (or IRRs) and their 95-percent CIs for each outcome. An effect size of 1.00 indicates that, after a state passes the law, we would expect the outcome (e.g., suicide or firearm suicide) to be unaffected. An effect size of less than 1.00 indicates that the law appears to reduce the outcome. For example, if the effect size were 0.92, we would expect the rate of the outcome to fall to 0.92 times the rate prior to passage of the law. Conversely, an effect size of more than 1.00 indicates that the law appears to increase the outcome by a factor equivalent to the effect size value. When the CIs do not include the value of 1.00, the estimated effect is statistically significant at p < 0.05.

NOTE: This figure includes only the studies reporting dummy-coded law effects published since the NRC (2004) review of gun policy effects. IRR values marked with empty circles indicate that we identified concerns with the study's methodology, and these concerns are described in the text above. Filled circles indicate that we identified no significant methodological concerns. An arrow on either end of a CI indicates that the interval is wider than can be displayed on the scale.

NOTE: This figure includes only the studies reporting dummy-coded law effects published since the NRC (2004) review of gun policy effects. The estimates from Kovandzic, Marvell, and Vieraitis (2005) are from the authors' dummy model specification rather than their preferred spline model. IRR values marked with empty circles indicate that we identified concerns with the study's methodology, and these concerns are described in the text above. Filled circles indicate that we identified no significant methodological concerns. An arrow on either end of a CI indicates that the interval is wider than can be displayed on the scale.

Conclusions

Because so much more study has been done of the relationship between concealed-carry laws and violent crime than of any other gun policy and outcome, there is a much richer evidence base to draw on, including studies raising serious methodological concerns and several that did not raise as many concerns among our methodology review team. Therefore, to focus this review on the best available evidence, we draw our conclusions in this section based just on those 18 studies that did not raise serious methodological concerns. We incorporate all studies that met this criterion in our discussion, but we prioritize findings from studies with a study time frame that extended beyond 2000. We do so because studies omitting more-recent data (1) identify policy effects excluding a large number of states that have enacted shall-issue laws in the past 20 years and (2) have limited post-implementation data to allow these policies to establish their full effects.

Total homicides. Of the 18 studies without serious methodological concerns, 16 examined the effects of shall-issue laws on total homicides, and one examined the effects of the laws on fatal assaults of law enforcement officers. Of the eight studies that evaluated shall-issue laws and included data after 2000, five found only uncertain effects of these laws (Donohue, Aneja, and Weber, 2019; Hamill et al., 2019; Luca, Malhotra, and Poliquin, 2017; Crifasi, Pollack, and Webster, 2016; Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang, 2014). Kendall and Tamura (2010) found small suggestive effects consistent with shall-issue laws reducing homicides. Moody et al. (2014) found that shall-issue laws cause a downward trend in homicides, although a subsequent study that included four more years of data found uncertain effects of the law in seven of eight evaluated years, with a single significant negative effect in the seventh year (Moody and Marvell, 2018a). La Valle and Glover (2012) found that shall-issue laws increased homicides significantly relative to having no law for the legal carriage of a concealed firearm (no-issue laws); and La Valle (2013) found that shall-issue or may-issue laws reduce total homicides relative to no-issue laws. This result cannot be used to distinguish the effect of shall-issue laws per se, but it suggests that shall-issue laws, may-issue laws, or both contribute to reducing total homicides. Of the six studies focused on a period prior to 2000, two found that shall-issue laws caused a downward trend in homicides or murders (Strnad, 2007; Plassmann and Whitley, 2003), one found a suggestive negative effect (Olson and Maltz, 2001), and three found uncertain effects (Hepburn et al., 2004; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004; Ludwig, 1998). Because studies with comparable methodological quality reached inconsistent results, we find that the best available studies provide inconclusive evidence for the effect of shall-issue laws on total homicides.

Firearm homicides. Eight of the 18 studies examined the effects of shall-issue laws on firearm homicides. Among these eight, six evaluated data past 2000, and there was one suggestive (Hamill et al., 2019) and one significant (La Valle and Glover, 2012) effect indicating that these laws increase firearm homicides. La Valle (2013) found that shall-issue or may-issue laws cause decreases in firearm homicide rates relative to no-issue laws. This result cannot be used to distinguish the effect of shall-issue laws per se, but it suggests that shall-issue laws, may-issue laws, or both contribute to reducing firearm homicides. The two studies evaluating the longest period (1977 to 2014) found uncertain effects of shall-issue laws on firearm homicides (Donohue, Aneja, and Weber, 2019; Luca, Malhotra, and Poliquin, 2017). One study examined the effects of the laws on fatal handgun assaults of law enforcement officers and found uncertain effects (Crifasi, Pollack, and Webster, 2016). Of the two studies focused on a period prior to 2000, one found that shall-issue laws increase firearm homicides (French and Heagerty, 2008), and the other found that the laws decrease firearm homicides (Olson and Maltz, 2001). With seemingly conflicting evidence, we conclude that the best available studies provide inconclusive evidence for the effect of shall-issue laws on firearm homicides.

Robberies. Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) found a suggestive effect that shall-issue laws may increase robbery rates, while Hamill et al. (2019) instead found a suggestive effect indicating that shall-issue laws decrease robbery rates. Five studies, the three most recent of which included data after 2000, found largely uncertain effects of shall-issue laws on robberies (Moody and Marvell, 2018a; Moody et al., 2014; Kendall and Tamura, 2010; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004; Plassmann and Whitley, 2003). Therefore, we conclude that the best available studies provide inconclusive evidence for the effect of shall-issue laws on robberies.

Assaults. Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) found a suggestive effect that shall-issue laws may increase assault rates, and Moody et al. (2014) found that shall-issue laws were associated with a significant upward trend in assault rates. In contrast, Moody and Marvell (2018a) found suggestive effects consistent with shall-issue laws leading to reduced assault rates, and Crifasi, Pollack, and Webster (2016) found that shall-issue laws had a suggestive negative effect on nonfatal assaults of law enforcement officers. Four studies, including two with data extending past 2000 (Hamill et al., 2019; Kendall and Tamura, 2010), found only uncertain effects of shall-issue laws on assault (Hamill et al., 2019; Kendall and Tamura, 2010; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004; Plassmann and Whitley, 2003). Therefore, we conclude that the best available studies provide inconclusive evidence for the effect of shall-issue laws on assaults.

Rapes. Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang (2014) found that shall-issue laws significantly increase rates of rape. Moody et al. (2014) found that shall-issue laws produce a significant downward trend on rates of rape. Moody and Marvell (2018a) also found some evidence of significant declines in rape rates, although these effects did not emerge until four years after implementation of the law. Four studies, two of which included data past 2000, found uncertain evidence of an association between shall-issue laws and rape (Hamill et al., 2019; Kendall and Tamura, 2010; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004; Plassmann and Whitley, 2003). Therefore, we conclude that the best available studies provide inconclusive evidence for the effect of shall-issue laws on rapes.

Violent crime. Two studies (Donohue, Aneja, and Weber, 2019; Durlauf, Navarro, and Rivers, 2016) aggregated all violent crimes into a single category and found that shall-issue laws significantly increase violent crime rates. Three studies, one of which included data past 2000, found uncertain effects of shall-issue laws on overall violent crime (Hamill et al., 2019; Helland and Tabarrok, 2004; Plassmann and Whitley, 2003). Because evidence for the effect of shall-issue laws on each component of violent crime is inconclusive, it could be argued that these two studies of the effect of these laws on all violent crimes should not suffice to suggest that there is more than inconclusive evidence for such an effect. However, because analyses on all violent crimes may have greater statistical power to detect any such effects, and because our scoring criteria indicate it, we conclude that there is limited evidence that shall-issue laws may increase violent crime.

Originally published March 2, 2018

• Abadie, Alberto, Alexis Diamond, and Jens Hainmueller, “Synthetic Control Methods for Comparative Case Studies: Estimating the Effect of California’s Tobacco Control Program,” Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. 105, No. 490, 2010, pp. 493–505.
• Abutaleb, Yasmeen, and William Wan, “After Trump Blames Mental Illness for Mass Shootings, Health Agencies Ordered to Hold All Posts on Issue,” Washington Post, August 20, 2019.
• Adler, W. C., F. M. Bielke, D. J. Doi, and J. F. Kennedy, Cops Under Fire: Law Enforcement Officers Killed with Assault Weapons or Guns with High Capacity, Washington, D.C.: Handgun Control, Inc., 1995.
• Ahmedani, Brian K., Gregory E. Simon, Christine Stewart, Arne Beck, Beth E. Waitzfelder, Rebecca Rossom, Frances Lynch, Ashli Owen-Smith, Enid M. Hunkeler, Ursula Whiteside, Belinda H. Operskalski, M. Justin Coffey, and Leif I. Solberg, “Health Care Contacts in the Year Before Suicide Death,” Journal of General Internal Medicine, Vol. 29, No. 6, 2014, pp. 870–877.
• Aitken, Mary E., Samantha D. Minster, Samantha H. Mullins, Heather M. Hirsch, Purnima Unni, Kathy Monroe, and Beverly K. Miller, “Parents’ Perspectives on Safe Storage of Firearms,” Journal of Community Health, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2020, pp. 469–477.
• Albert, Adelin, and John A. Anderson, “On the Existence of Maximum Likelihood Estimates in Logistic Regression Models,” Biometrika, Vol. 71, No. 1, 1984, pp. 1–10.
• Alcazar, Beth, “Kids and Guns: Simple Steps to a Safer Home,” U.S. Concealed Carry Association, webpage, February 15, 2021. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.usconcealedcarry.com/blog/simple-steps-to-safer-home/
• Alcorn, Ted, “Trends in Research Publications About Gun Violence in the United States, 1960 to 2014,” JAMA Internal Medicine, Vol. 177, No. 1, January 2017, pp. 124–126.
• Alcorn, Ted, and Scott Burris, “Gun Violence Prevention,” Lancet, Vol. 388, No. 10041, 2016, p. 233.
• Aldrich, John H., and Forrest D. Nelson, Linear Probability, Logit, and Probit Models, Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1984.
• Allcott, Hunt, Benjamin B. Lockwood, and Dmitry Taubinsky, “Regressive Sin Taxes, with an Application to the Optimal Soda Tax,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 134, No. 3, 2019, pp. 1557–1626.
• Alpers, Philip, “Mass Gun Killings in Australia, 1971–2019,” GunPolicy.org, October 7, 2019.
• Alpers, Philip, and Michael Picard, “Australia—Gun Facts, Figures and the Law,” GunPolicy.org, 2020.
• American Law Institute, Model Penal Code, Section 2.02 cmt.at 238, 1985.
• American Medical Association, “The Physician’s Role in Promoting Firearm Safety,” webpage, undated. As of December 20, 2021: https://edhub.ama-assn.org/interactive/17579432
• AmmoSpy, “Trending,” webpage, undated. As of June 29, 2017: http://www.ammospy.net/trending
• Andersen, Ronald, Martin R. Frankel, and Judith Kasper, Total Survey Error: Applications to Improve Health Surveys, San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, 1979.
• Anderson, D. Mark, and Joseph J. Sabia, “Child-Access-Prevention Laws, Youths’ Gun Carrying, and School Shootings,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 61, No. 3, August 2018, pp. 489–524.
• Andrés, Antonio Rodríguez, and Katherine Hempstead, “Gun Control and Suicide: The Impact of State Firearm Regulations in the United States, 1995–2004,” Health Policy, Vol. 101, No. 1, 2011, pp. 95–103.
• Aneja, Abhay, John J. Donohue III, and Alexandria Zhang, “The Impact of Right-to-Carry Laws and the NRC Report: Lessons for the Empirical Evaluation of Law and Policy,” American Law and Economics Review, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2011, pp. 565–631.
• Aneja, Abhay, John J. Donohue III, and Alexandria Zhang, The Impact of Right to Carry Laws and the NRC Report: Lessons for the Empirical Evaluation of Law and Policy, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Law School, Olin Working Paper No. 461, December 1, 2014.
• Anestis, M. D., “Prior Suicide Attempts Are Less Common in Suicide Decedents Who Died by Firearms Relative to Those Who Died by Other Means,” Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol. 189, No. 1, 2016, pp. 106–109.
• Anestis, Michael D., and Joye C. Anestis, “Suicide Rates and State Laws Regulating Access and Exposure to Handguns,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 105, No. 10, 2015, pp. 2049–2058.
• Anestis, Michael D., Allison E. Bond, AnnaBelle O’Bryan, and Craig J. Bryan, “An Examination of Preferred Messengers on Firearm Safety for Suicide Prevention,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 145, April 2021, 106452.
• Anestis, Michael D., Craig J. Bryan, Daniel W. Capron, and AnnaBelle O’Bryan, “Lethal Means Counseling, Distribution of Cable Locks, and Safe Firearm Storage Practices Among the Mississippi National Guard: A Factorial Randomized Controlled Trial, 2018–2020,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 111, No. 2, February 2021, pp. 309–317.
• Appleby, Louis, John A. Dennehy, Christopher S. Thomas, E. Brian Faragher, and Glyn Lewis, “Aftercare and Clinical Characteristics of People with Mental Illness Who Commit Suicide: A Case-Control Study,” Lancet, Vol. 353, No. 9162, 1999, pp. 1397–1400.
• Arria, Amelia M., Emily R. Winick, Laura M. Garnier-Dykstra, Kathryn B. Vincent, Kimberly M. Caldeira, Holly C. Wilcox, and Kevin E. O’Grady, “Help Seeking and Mental Health Service Utilization Among College Students with a History of Suicide Ideation,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 62, No. 12, 2011, pp. 1510–1513.
• Associated Press and USA Today, “Report: 2019 Records 41 Mass Killings in United States,” Tucson.com, December 28, 2019.
• ATF—See Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives.
• Avraham, Jacob B., Spiros G. Frangos, and Charles J. DiMaggio, “The Epidemiology of Firearm Injuries Managed in US Emergency Departments,” Injury Epidemiology, Vol. 5, No. 38, 2018.
• Ayres, Ian, and John J. Donohue III, “Nondiscretionary Concealed Weapons Laws: A Case Study of Statistics, Standards of Proof, and Public Policy,” American Law and Economics Review, Vol. 1, No. 1–2, January 1999, pp. 436–470.
• Ayres, Ian, and John J. Donohue III, Shooting Down the More Guns, Less Crime Hypothesis, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 9336, November 2002.
• Ayres, Ian, and John J. Donohue III, “Shooting Down the More Guns, Less Crime Hypothesis,” Stanford Law Review, Vol. 55, No. 4, 2003a, pp. 1193–1312.
• Ayres, Ian, and John J. Donohue III, “The Latest Misfires in Support of the 'More Guns, Less Crime' Hypothesis,” Stanford Law Review, Vol. 55, No. 4, 2003b, pp. 1371–1398.
• Ayres, Ian, and John J. Donohue III, “Yet Another Refutation of the More Guns, Less Crime Hypothesis—with Some Help from Moody and Marvell,” Econ Journal Watch, Vol. 6, No. 1, January 2009a, pp. 35–59.
• Ayres, Ian, and John J. Donohue III, “More Guns, Less Crime Fails Again: The Latest Evidence from 1977–2006,” Econ Journal Watch, Vol. 6, No. 2, May 2009b, pp. 218–238.
• Azrael, D., A. A. Braga, and M. E. O’Brien, Developing the Capacity to Understand and Prevent Homicide: An Evaluation of the Milwaukee Homicide Review Commission, Boston, Mass.: Harvard School of Public Health, 2013.
• Azrael, Deborah, Joanna Cohen, Carmel Salhi, and Matthew Miller, “Firearm Storage in Gun-Owning Households with Children: Results of a 2015 National Survey,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 95, No. 3, 2018, pp. 295–304.
• Azrael, Deborah, Philip J. Cook, and Matthew Miller, “State and Local Prevalence of Firearms Ownership Measurement, Structure, and Trends,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 20, No. 1, March 2004, pp. 43–62.
• Azrael, Deborah, Lisa Hepburn, David Hemenway, and Matthew Miller, “The Stock and Flow of U.S. Firearms: Results from the 2015 National Firearms Survey,” Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 5, 2017, pp. 38–57.
• Azrael, Deborah, and Matthew Miller, “Reducing Suicide Without Affecting Underlying Mental Health: Theoretical Underpinnings and a Review of the Evidence Base Lining the Availability of Lethal Means and Suicide,” in Rory C. O’Connor and Jane Pirkis, eds., The International Handbook of Suicide Prevention, 2nd ed., Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley and Sons, 2016.
• Baekgaard, Martin, Julian Christensen, Casper Mondrup Dahlmann, Asbjørn Mathiasen, and Niels Bjørn Grund Petersen, “The Role of Evidence in Politics: Motivated Reasoning and Persuasion Among Politicians,” British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 49, No. 3, July 2019, pp. 1117–1140.
• Bailey, J. E., A. L. Kellermann, G. W. Somes, J. G. Banton, F. P. Rivara, and N. P. Rushforth, “Risk Factors for Violent Death of Women in the Home,” Archives of Internal Medicine, Vol. 157, No. 7, 1997, pp. 777–782.
• Baker, Jeanine, and Samara McPhedran, “Gun Laws and Sudden Death: Did the Australian Firearms Legislation of 1996 Make a Difference?” British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2007, pp. 455–469.
• Baker, Jeanine, and Samara McPhedran, “Australian Firearm Related Deaths: New Findings and Implications for Crime Prevention and Health Policies Following Revisions to Official Death Count Data,” International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2015, pp. 1–9.
• Barati, Mehdi, “New Evidence on the Impact of Concealed Carry Weapon Laws on Crime,” International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 47, 2016, pp. 76–83.
• Barber, Catherine, Deborah Azrael, Amy Cohen, Matthew Miller, Deonza Thymes, David Enze Wang, and David Hemenway, “Homicides by Police: Comparing Counts from the National Violent Death Reporting System, Vital Statistics, and Supplementary Homicide Reports,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 106, No. 5, May 2016, pp. 922–927.
• Barber, Catherine, Elaine Frank, and Ralph Demicco, “Reducing Suicides Through Partnerships Between Health Professionals and Gun Owner Groups—Beyond Docs vs Glocks,” JAMA Internal Medicine, Vol. 177, No. 1, January 2017, pp. 5–6.
• Barber, Catherine, and David Hemenway, “Too Many or Too Few Unintentional Firearm Deaths in Official U.S. Mortality Data?” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 43, No. 3, 2011, pp. 724–731.
• Barber, C., D. Hemenway, J. Hochstadt, and D. Azrael, “Underestimates of Unintentional Firearm Fatalities: Comparing Supplementary Homicide Report Data with the National Vital Statistics System,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2002, pp. 252–256.
• Barkin, Shari L., Stacia A. Finch, Edward H. Ip, Benjamin Scheindlin, Joseph A. Craig, Jennifer Steffes, Victoria Weiley, Eric Slora, David Altman, and Richard C. Wasserman, “Is Office-Based Counseling About Media Use, Timeouts, and Firearm Storage Effective? Results from a Cluster-Randomized, Controlled Trial,” Pediatrics, Vol. 122, No. 1, 2008, pp. E15–E25.
• Bartley, William Alan, and Mark A. Cohen, “The Effect of Concealed Weapons Laws: An Extreme Bound Analysis,” Economic Inquiry, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1998, pp. 258–265.
• Barton, M. S., “Gentrification and Violent Crime in New York City,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 62, No. 9, 2016, pp. 1180–1202.
• Bartos, Bradley J., Richard McCleary, Lorraine Mazerolle, and Kelsy Luengen, “Controlling Gun Violence: Assessing the Impact of Australia’s Gun Buyback Program Using a Synthetic Control Group Experiment,” Prevention Science, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2020, pp. 131–136.
• Bate, Roger, Cody Kallen, and Aparna Mathur, “The Perverse Effect of Sin Taxes: The Rise of Illicit White Cigarettes,” Applied Economics, Vol. 52, No. 8, 2020, pp. 789–805.
• BBC Research & Consulting, The Economic Impacts of Hunting, Fishing and Wildlife Watching in Colorado, Denver, Colo., September 26, 2008.
• Beard, T. Randolph, Paula A. Gant, and Richard P. Saba, “Border-Crossing Sales, Tax Avoidance, and State Tax Policies: An Application to Alcohol,” Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 64, No. 1, July 1997, pp. 293–306.
• Beauchamp, Zack, “Australia Confiscated 650,000 Guns. Murders and Suicides Plummeted,” Vox, May 18, 2018.
• Beekman, Daniel, “How Gun-Tax Legislation Would Affect Seattle Firearms Stores,” Seattle Times, July 29, 2015.
• Beekman, Daniel, “Seattle’s Gun Tax Raised $93,000 Last Year,” Seattle Times, March 16, 2018.
• Beidas, Rinad S., Shari Jager-Hyman, Emily M. Becker-Haimes, Courtney Benjamin Wolk, Brian K. Ahmedani, John E. Zeber, Joel A. Fein, Gregory K. Brown, Courtney A. Gregor, Adina Lieberman, and Steven C. Marcus, “Acceptability and Use of Evidence-Based Practices for Firearm Storage in Pediatric Primary Care,” Academic Pediatrics, Vol. 19, No. 6, August 2019, pp. 670–676.
• Benson, Bruce L., and Brent D. Mast, “Privately Produced General Deterrence,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. S2, 2001, pp. 725–746.
• Berk, Richard A., and Susan B. Sorenson, “Algorithmic Approach to Forecasting Rare Violent Events: An Illustration Based in Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 213–233.
• Berrigan, John, Deborah Azrael, David Hemenway, and Matthew Miller, “Firearms Training and Storage Practices Among US Gun Owners: A Nationally Representative Study,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 25, Supp. 1, 2019, pp. i31–i38.
• Betz, Marian E., Deborah Azrael, Catherine Barber, and Matthew Miller, “Public Opinion Regarding Whether Speaking with Patients About Firearms Is Appropriate: Results of a National Survey,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 165, No. 8, October 18, 2016, pp. 543–550.
• Betz, Marian E., Deborah Azrael, Rachel L. Johnson, Christopher E. Knoepke, Megan L. Ranney, Garen J. Wintemute, Daniel Matlock, Krithika Suresh, and Matthew Miller, “Views on Firearm Safety Among Caregivers of People with Alzheimer Disease and Related Dementias,” JAMA Network Open, Vol. 3, No. 7, July 15, 2020, e207756.
• Betz, M. E., C. Barber, and M. Miller, “Suicidal Behavior and Firearm Access: Results from the Second Injury Control and Risk Survey,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 41, No. 4, 2011, pp. 384–391.
• Betz, Marian E., Christopher E. Knoepke, Scott Simpson, Bonnie J. Siry, Ashley Clement, Tamara Saunders, Rachel Johnson, Deborah Azrael, Edwin D. Boudreaux, Faris Omeragic, Leah M. Adams, Sydney Almond, Elizabeth Juarez-Colunga, and Daniel D. Matlock, “An Interactive Web-Based Lethal Means Safety Decision Aid for Suicidal Adults (Lock to Live): Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Medical Internet Research, Vol. 22, No. 1, January 2020, e16253.
• Betz, M. E., M. Miller, C. Barber, B. Beaty, I. Miller, C. A. Camargo, Jr., and E. D. Boudreaux, “Lethal Means Access and Assessment Among Suicidal Emergency Department Patients,” Depression and Anxiety, Vol. 33, No. 6, 2016, pp. 502–511.
• Bichler, G., A. Norris, J. R. Dmello, and J. Randle, “The Impact of Civil Gang Injunctions on Networked Violence Between the Bloods and the Crips,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 65, No. 7, 2019, pp. 875–915.
• Bichler, Gisela, Karin Schmerler, and Janet Enriquez, “Curbing Nuisance Motels: An Evaluation of Police as Place Regulators,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, Vol. 36, No. 2, 2013, pp. 437–462.
• Bice, Douglas C., and David D. Hemley, “The Market for New Handguns: An Empirical Investigation,” Journal of Law & Economics, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2002, pp. 251–265.
• Birckmayer, J., and D. Hemenway, “Suicide and Firearm Prevalence: Are Youth Disproportionately Affected?” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 31, No. 3, 2001, pp. 303–310.
• Black, Dan A., and Daniel S. Nagin, “Do Right-to-Carry Laws Deter Violent Crime?” Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1998, pp. 209–219.
• Blair, Janet M., Katherine A. Fowler, Shane P. D. Jack, and Alexander E. Crosby, “The National Violent Death Reporting System: Overview and Future Directions,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 22, Supp. 1, 2016, pp. i6–11.
• Blair, J. Pete, and Katherine W. Schweit, A Study of Active Shooter Incidents, 2000–2013, Washington, D.C.: Texas State University and Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice, 2014.
• Blattman, C., D. Green, D. Ortega, and S. Tobón, “Place-Based Interventions at Scale: The Direct and Spillover Effects of Policing and City Services on Crime,” BFI Working Paper, 2019.
• Blau, Benjamin M., Devon H. Gorry, and Chip Wade, “Guns, Laws, and Public Shootings in the United States,” Applied Economics, Vol. 48, No. 49, 2016, pp. 4732–4746.
• Blosnich, John R., Kirsty A. Clark, Vickie M. Mays, and Susan D. Cochran, “Sexual and Gender Minority Status and Firearms in the Household: Findings from the 2017 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Surveys, California and Texas,” Public Health Reports, Vol. 135, No. 6, 2020, pp. 778–784.
• Bohnert, A. S., J. F. McCarthy, R. V. Ignacio, M. A. Ilgen, A. Eisenberg, and F. C. Blow, “Misclassification of Suicide Deaths: Examining the Psychiatric History of Overdose Decedents,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 19, No. 6, 2013, pp. 326–330.
• Bongiorno, Diana M., Eric N. Kramer, Marisa D. Booty, and Cassandra K. Crifasi, “Development of an Online Map of Safe Gun Storage Sites in Maryland for Suicide Prevention,” International Review of Psychiatry, Vol. 33, No. 7, 2021, pp. 626–630.
• Booty, Marisa, Jayne O’Dwyer, Daniel Webster, Alex McCourt, and Cassandra Crifasi, “Describing a ‘Mass Shooting’: The Role of Databases in Understanding Burden,” Injury Epidemiology, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2019, article 47.
• Borowsky, I. W., M. D. Resnick, M. Ireland, and R. W. Blum, “Suicide Attempts Among American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Risk and Protective Factors,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 153, No. 6, 1999, pp. 573–580.
• Bose, Jonaki, Sarra L. Hedden, Rachel N. Lipari, and Eunice Park-Lee, Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, Rockville, Md.: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, September 2018.
• Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence, “About Brady,” webpage, undated. As of January 10, 2016: http://www.bradycampaign.org/about-brady
• Braga, A. A., “Getting Deterrence Right: Evaluation Evidence and Complementary Crime Control Mechanisms,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 11, 2012, pp. 201–210.
• Braga, Anthony A., “Guns and Crime,” in F. Parisi, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Law and Economics, Vol. 3: Public Law and Legal Institutions, New York: Oxford University Press, 2017, pp. 344–369.
• Braga, A. A., D. Hureau, and L. Grossman, Managing Group Violence Reduction Strategies: The Value of Shooting Scorecards, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2014.
• Braga, A. A., D. M. Hureau, and A. V. Papachristos, “An Ex Post Facto Evaluation Framework for Place-Based Police Interventions,” Evaluation Review, Vol. 35, No. 6, 2012, pp. 592–626.
• Braga, A. A., D. M. Hureau, and A. V. Papachristos, “Deterring Gang-Involved Gun Violence: Measuring the Impact of Boston’s Operation Ceasefire on Street Gang Behavior,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 30, No. 1, 2014, pp. 113–139.
• Braga, A. A., D. M. Hureau, and C. Winship, “Losing Faith? Police, Black Churches, and the Resurgence of Youth Violence in Boston,” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 2008.
• Braga, A. A., D. M. Kennedy, E. J. Waring, and A. M. Piehl, “Problem-Oriented Policing, Deterrence, and Youth Violence: An Evaluation of Boston’s Operation Ceasefire,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 38, No. 3, 2001, pp. 195–225.
• Braga, Anthony A., Andrew V. Papachristos, and David M. Hureau, “The Effects of Hot Spots Policing on Crime: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 31, No. 4, 2014, pp. 633–663.
• Braga, A. A., and G. L. Pierce, “Disrupting Illegal Firearms Markets in Boston: The Effects of Operation Ceasefire on the Supply of New Handguns to Criminals,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2005, pp. 717–748.
• Braga, A. A., B. Turchan, and L. Barao, “The Influence of Investigative Resources on Homicide Clearances,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2019, pp. 337–364.
• Braga, Anthony A., and David L. Weisburd, “The Effects of Focused Deterrence Strategies on Crime: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 49, No. 3, 2012, pp. 323–358.
• Braga, A. A., and D. L. Weisburd, “Must We Settle for Less Rigorous Evaluations in Large Area-Based Crime Prevention Programs? Lessons from a Campbell Review of Focused Deterrence,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2014, pp. 573–597.
• Braga, Anthony A., David Weisburd, and Brandon Turchan, “Focused Deterrence Strategies and Crime Control: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2018, pp. 205–250.
• Braga, Anthony A., Garen J. Wintemute, Glenn L. Pierce, Philip J. Cook, and Greg Ridgeway, “Interpreting the Empirical Evidence on Illegal Gun Market Dynamics,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 89, No. 5, 2012, pp. 779–793.
• Braga, A. A., G. Zimmerman, L. Barao, C. Farrell, R. K. Brunson, and A. V. Papachristos, “Street Gangs, Gun Violence, and Focused Deterrence: Comparing Place-Based and Group-Based Evaluation Methods to Estimate Direct and Spillover Deterrent Effects,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 56, No. 4, 2019, pp. 524–562.
• Branas, C. C., T. S. Richmond, D. P. Culhane, T. R. Ten Have, and D. J. Wiebe, “Investigating the Link Between Gun Possession and Gun Assault,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 99, No. 11, 2009, pp. 2034–2040.
• Brauer, Jurgen, Daniel Montolio, and Elisa Trujillo-Baute, “How Do US State Firearms Laws Affect Firearms Manufacturing Location? An Empirical Investigation, 1986–2010,” Journal of Economic Geography, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2017, pp. 753–790.
• Brenan, Megan, “Most U.S. Teachers Oppose Carrying Guns in Schools,” Gallup, March 16, 2018.
• Brent, D. A., M. Baugher, J. Bridge, T. H. Chen, and L. Chiappetta, “Suicide in Affectively Ill Adolescents: A Case-Control Study,” Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1994, pp. 193–202.
• Brent, D. A., M. Baugher, J. Bridge, T. H. Chen, and L. Chiappetta, “Age- and Sex-Related Risk Factors for Adolescent Suicide,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 38, No. 12, 1999, pp. 1497–1505.
• Brent, D. A., J. A. Perper, C. J. Allman, G. M. Moritz, M. E. Wartella, and J. P. Zelenak, “The Presence and Accessibility of Firearms in the Homes of Adolescent Suicides: A Case-Control Study,” JAMA, Vol. 266, No. 21, 1991, pp. 2989–2995.
• Brent, D. A., J. Perper, G. Moritz, M. Baugher, and C. Allman, “Suicide in Adolescents with No Apparent Psychopathology,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 32, No. 3, 1993a, pp. 494–500.
• Brent, D. A., J. A. Perper, G. Moritz, M. Baugher, J. Schweers, and C. Roth, “Firearms and Adolescent Suicide—A Community Case-Control Study,” American Journal of Diseases of Children, Vol. 147, No. 10, 1993b, pp. 1066–1071.
• Bridges, F. Stephen, Kimberly M. Tatum, and Julie C. Kunselman, “Domestic Violence Statutes and Rates of Intimate Partner and Family Homicide,” Criminal Justice Policy Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2008, pp. 117–130.
• Briggs, J. T., and A. Tabarrok, “Firearms and Suicides in U.S. States,” International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 37, 2014, pp. 180–188.
• Britt, Chester L., Gary Kleck, and David J. Bordua, “A Reassessment of the D.C. Gun Law: Some Cautionary Notes on the Use of Interrupted Time Series Designs for Policy Impact Assessment,” Law and Society Review, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1996, pp. 361–380.
• Bronars, Stephen G., and John R. Lott, Jr., “Criminal Deterrence, Geographic Spillovers, and the Right to Carry Concealed Handguns,” American Economic Review, Vol. 88, No. 2, 1998, pp. 475–479.
• Brunson, R. K., A. A. Braga, D. M. Hureau, and K. Pegram, “We Trust You, but Not That Much: Examining Police-Black Clergy Partnerships to Reduce Youth Violence,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 6, 2013, pp. 1006–1036.
• Bryan, Craig J., AnnaBelle O. Bryan, Michael D. Anestis, Lauren R. Khazem, Julia A. Harris, Alexis M. May, and Cynthia Thomsen, “Firearm Availability and Storage Practices Among Military Personnel Who Have Thought About Suicide,” JAMA Network Open, Vol. 2, No. 8, August 16, 2019, e199160.
• Buchanan, Larry, Josh Keller, Richard A. Oppel, Jr., and Daniel Victor, “How They Got Their Guns,” New York Times, June 12, 2016.
• Buchanan, Larry, Josh Keller, Richard A. Oppel, Jr., and Daniel Victor, “How They Got Their Guns,” New York Times, February 14, 2018.
• Bukstein, O. G., D. A. Brent, J. A. Perper, G. Moritz, M. Baugher, J. Schweers, C. Roth, and L. Balach, “Risk Factors for Completed Suicide Among Adolescents with a Lifetime History of Substance Abuse: A Case-Control Study,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Vol. 88, No. 6, 1993, pp. 403–408.
• BulletPoints, “Our Mission,” webpage, last updated October 2020. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.bulletpointsproject.org/our-mission/
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Crime Gun Trace Analysis Reports: The Illegal Youth Firearms Market in Seventeen Communities, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Treasury, 1997.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Crime Gun Trace Reports (2000): Memphis, Tennessee, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Treasury, July 2002.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, 2012 Summary: Firearms Reported Lost and Stolen, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2013.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, FFL Thefts/Losses: January 1, 2015–December 31, 2015, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2016a.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Firearms Commerce in the United States: Annual Statistical Update 2016, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2016b.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Annual Firearms Manufacturing and Export Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, January 27, 2017.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Firearms Commerce in the United States: Annual Statistical Update 2018, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2018.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Federal Firearms Licensee (FFL) Theft/Loss Report: January 1, 2018–December 31, 2018, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2019.
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, “Fact Sheet—Facts and Figures for Fiscal Year 2018,” May 2019a. As of March 27, 2020: https://www.atf.gov/resource-center/fact-sheet/fact-sheet-facts-and-figures-fiscal-year-2018
• Bureau of Justice Statistics, “National Crime Statistics Exchange: Powering the Transition to NIBRS,” webpage, undated. As of September 6, 2019: https://www.bjs.gov/content/ncsx.cfm
• Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Data Collection: National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS),” webpage, 2017a. As of May 15, 2017: https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=301
• Bureau of Justice Statistics, “NCVS Redesign: Subnational,” webpage, 2017b. As of May 15, 2017: https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=tp&tid=911
• Burnham, Kenneth P., and David R. Anderson, “Multimodel Inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in Model Selection,” Sociological Methods and Research, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2004, pp. 261–304.
• Butkus, Renee, and Arlene Weissman, “Internists’ Attitudes Toward Prevention of Firearm Injury,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 160, No. 12, 2014, pp. 821–827.
• Butts, J. A., C. G. Roman, L. Bostwick, and J. R. Porter, “Cure Violence: A Public Health Model to Reduce Gun Violence,” Annual Review of Public Health, Vol. 36, 2015, pp. 39–53.
• Cabrera, Joseph F., and Roy Kwon, “Income Inequality, Household Income, and Mass Shooting in the United States,” Frontiers in Public Health, Vol. 6, October 2018, article 294.
• Cai, Weiyi, and Jugal K. Patel, “A Half-Century of School Shootings Like Columbine, Sandy Hook and Parkland,” New York Times, May 11, 2019.
• Cagle, M. Christine, and J. Michael Martinez, “Have Gun, Will Travel: The Dispute Between the CDC and the NRA on Firearm Violence as a Public Health Problem,” Politics & Policy, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2004, pp. 278–310.
• Caldwell, B., “Criminalizing Day-to-Day Life: A Socio-Legal Critique of Gang Injunctions,” American Journal of Criminal Law, Vol. 37, No. 3, 2009, pp. 241–290.
• California Department of Justice, “General Notice of Firearm Prohibition and Power of Attorney for Firearms Relinquishment, Sale, or Transfer for Storage,” BOF 110, October 2015.
• Callahan, Molly, “The Story Behind the Data on Mass Murder in the United States,” Northeastern University, August 13, 2019.
• Cameron, A. Colin, Jonah B. Gelbach, and Douglas L. Miller, “Bootstrap-Based Improvements for Inference with Clustered Errors,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 90, No. 3, 2008, pp. 414–427.
• Campbell Collaboration, Guidelines for Preparation of Review Protocols, Version 1.0, Oslo, Norway, January 1, 2001.
• Campbell, Jacquelyn C., Nancy Glass, Phyllis W. Sharps, Kathryn Laughon, and Tina Bloom, “Intimate Partner Homicide: Review and Implications of Research and Policy,” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2007, pp. 246–269.
• Campbell, J. C., D. Webster, J. Kozio-McLain, C. Block, D. Campbell, M. A. Curry, F. Gary, N. Glass, J. McFarlane, C. Sachs, P. Sharps, Y. Ulrich, S. A. Wilt, J. Manganello, X. Xu, J. Schollenberger, V. Frye, and K. Laughon, “Risk Factors for Femicide in Abusive Relationships: Results from a Multisite Case Control Study,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 93, No. 7, 2003, pp. 1089–1097.
• Campbell, Sean, and Daniel Nass, “The CDC’s Gun Injury Data Is Becoming Even Less Reliable,” FiveThirtyEight, March 11, 2019.
• Campbell, Sean, Daniel Nass, and Mai Nguyen, “The CDC Is Publishing Unreliable Data on Gun Injuries. People Are Using It Anyway,” FiveThirtyEight, October 4, 2018.
• Cantor, D., “Substantive Implications of Longitudinal Design Features: The National Crime Survey as a Case Study,” in D. Kasprzyk, G. Duncan, G. Kalton, and M. P. Singh, eds., Panel Surveys, New York: John Wiley, 1989, pp. 25–51.
• Capellan, Joel Alfredo, and Alexei Anisin, “A Distinction Without a Difference? Examining the Causal Pathways Behind Ideologically Motivated Mass Public Shootings,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 22, No. 3, 2018, pp. 235–255.
• Capellan, Joel A., and SimonPeter Gomez, “Change and Stability in Offender, Behaviours, and Incident‐Level Characteristics of Mass Public Shootings in the United States, 1984–2015,” Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2018, pp. 51–72.
• Capellan, Joel A., and Allan Y. Jiao, Deconstructing Mass Public Shootings: Exploring Opportunities for Intervention, Albany, N.Y.: Rockefeller Institute of Government, October 2019.
• Capellan, Joel A., Joseph Johnson, Jeremy R. Porter, and Christine Martin, “Disaggregating Mass Public Shootings: A Comparative Analysis of Disgruntled Employee, School, Ideologically Motivated, and Rampage Shooters,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol. 64, No. 3, 2019, pp. 814–823.
• Carbone, Paul S., Conrad J. Clemens, and Thomas M. Ball, “Effectiveness of Gun-Safety Counseling and a Gun Lock Giveaway in a Hispanic Community,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 159, No. 11, 2005, pp. 1049–1054.
• Carter, David L., Homicide Process Mapping: Best Practices for Increasing Homicide Clearances, Tallahassee, Fla.: Institute for Intergovernmental Research, 2013.
• Cavanagh, J. T. O., A. J. Carson, M. Sharpe, and S. M. Lawrie, “Psychological Autopsy Studies of Suicide: A Systematic Review,” Psychological Medicine, Vol. 33, No. 3, 2003, pp. 395–405.
• Cavanaugh, Joseph E., “Unifying the Derivations for the Akaike and Corrected Akaike Information Criteria,” Statistics and Probability Letters, Vol. 33, No. 2, April 1997, pp. 201–208.
• Cave, Anthony, “Instead of Buying New Ammunition, These Gun Enthusiasts Recycle,” WAMU: American University Radio, March 5, 2019.
• CDC—See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, WONDER data system, undated. As of March 8, 2017: https://wonder.cdc.gov
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Underlying Cause of Death, 1999–2017,” WONDER data system, undated-a. As of July 6, 2019: http://wonder.cdc.gov/ucd-icd10.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Source of Firearms Used by Students in School-Associated Violent Deaths—United States, 1992–1999,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 50, No. 31, 2001, pp. 657–660.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Nonfatal Injury Reports, 2001–2014,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., March 28, 2013. As of March 9, 2017: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfirates2001.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Fatal Injury Reports, National and Regional, 1999–2015,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., June 24, 2015. As of March 23, 2017: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate10_us.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Fatal Injury Reports, National, Regional, and State 1981–2015,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., 2017a. As of May 8, 2017: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Leading Causes of Death Reports, National and Regional, 1999–2015,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., 2017b. As of May 10, 2017: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcaus10_us.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Nonfatal Injury Reports: 2001–2014,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., 2017c. As of January 15, 2017: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfirates2001.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Fatal Injury Reports, National, Regional, and State, 1981–2017,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., 2019a. As of July 9, 2019: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/mortrate.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Nonfatal Injury Reports, 2000–2017,” WISQARS database, Atlanta, Ga., January 18, 2019b. As of July 26, 2019: https://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfirates.html
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “WISQARS: Web-Based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System,” web tool, last updated July 1, 2020. As of December 11, 2020: http://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Funded Research [Violence Prevention],” webpage, last reviewed May 4, 2021. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/firearms/funded-research.html
• Chaloupka, Frank J., Lisa M. Powell, and Kenneth E. Warner, “The Use of Excise Taxes to Reduce Tobacco, Alcohol, and Sugary Beverage Consumption,” Annual Review of Public Health, Vol. 40, April 2019, pp. 187–201.
• Chaloupka, Frank J., Ayda Yurekli, and Geoffrey T. Fong, “Tobacco Taxes as a Tobacco Control Strategy,” Tobacco Control, Vol. 21, No. 2, 2012, pp. 172–180.
• Chang, Ailsa, “Why the AR-15 Is More Than Just a Gun,” NPR, June 24, 2013.
• Chapman, S., P. Alpers, K. Agho, and M. Jones, “Australia’s 1996 Gun Law Reforms: Faster Falls in Firearm Deaths, Firearm Suicides, and a Decade Without Mass Shootings,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 12, No. 6, 2006, pp. 365–372.
• Chapman, Simon, Philip Alpers, and Michael Jones, “Association Between Gun Law Reforms and Intentional Firearm Deaths in Australia, 1979–2013,” JAMA, Vol. 316, No. 3, 2016, pp. 291–299.
• Chapman, S., M. Stewart, P. Alpers, and M. Jones, “Fatal Firearm Incidents Before and After Australia’s 1996 National Firearms Agreement Banning Semiautomatic Rifles,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 169, No. 1, 2018, pp. 62–64.
• Chaudri, V., and J. Geanakoplos, “A Note on the Economic Rationalization of Gun Control,” Economics Letters, Vol. 58, No. 1, 1998, pp. 51–53.
• Chauhan, P., M. Cerda, S. F. Messner, M. Tracy, K. Tardiff, and S. Galea, “Race/Ethnic-Specific Homicide Rates in New York City: Evaluating the Impact of Broken Windows Policing and Crack Cocaine Markets,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2011, pp. 268–290.
• Cheng, Cheng, and Mark Hoekstra, “Does Strengthening Self-Defense Law Deter Crime or Escalate Violence? Evidence from Expansions to Castle Doctrine,” Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 48, No. 3, 2013, pp. 821–853.
• Cherney, Samantha, Andrew R. Morral, and Terry L. Schell, RAND State Firearm Law Database, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, TL-283-RC, 2018. As of March 2, 2018: https://www.rand.org/pubs/tools/TL283.html
• Cherney, Samantha, Andrew R. Morral, Terry L. Schell, and Sierra Smucker, RAND State Firearm Law Database, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, TL-283-1-RC, 2019. As of October 14, 2019: https://www.rand.org/pubs/tools/TL283-1.html
• Chesney, Edward, Guy M. Goodwin, and Seena Fazel, “Risks of All‐Cause and Suicide Mortality in Mental Disorders: A Meta‐Review,” World Psychiatry, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2014, pp. 153–160.
• Chesnut, Kelsie Y., Melissa Barragan, Jason Gravel, Natalie A. Pifer, Keramet Reiter, Nicole Sherman, and George E. Tita, “Not an ‘Iron Pipeline,’ but Many Capillaries: Regulating Passive Transactions in Los Angeles’ Secondary, Illegal Gun Market,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2017, pp. 226–231.
• Chetty, Raj, Adam Looney, and Kory Kroft, “Salience and Taxation: Theory and Evidence,” American Economic Review, Vol. 99, No. 4, 2009, pp. 1145–1177.
• Choe, J. Y., L. A. Teplin, and K. M. Abram, “Perpetration of Violence, Violent Victimization, and Severe Mental Illness: Balancing Public Health Outcomes,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 59, No. 2, 2008, pp. 153–164.
• Coben, J. H., C. A. Steiner, M. Barrett, C. T. Merrill, and D. Adamson, “Completeness of Cause of Injury Coding in Healthcare Administrative Databases in the United States,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2001, pp. 199–201.
• Code of Federal Regulations, Title 27, Section 478.11, Meaning of Terms.
• Code of Federal Regulations, Title 28, Section 25.9, Retention and Destruction of Records in the System.
• Code of Federal Regulations, Title 38, Section 1.218, Security and Law Enforcement at VA Facilities.
• Code of Federal Regulations, Title 39, Section 232.1, Conduct on Postal Property.
• Cohen, Amy P., Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Rate of Mass Shootings Has Tripled Since 2011, Harvard Research Shows,” Mother Jones, October 15, 2014.
• Cohn, Scott, “Remington Rifle Settlement, Including Free Trigger Replacement, Is Official,” CNBC, October 24, 2018.
• Cole, David, “Mandatory Firearms Training? What If We Had Mandatory Free Speech Training,” Ammoland: Shooting Sports News, June 13, 2014.
• Collazos, D., E. García, D. Mejía, D. Ortega, and S. Tobón, “Hot Spots Policing in a High Crime Environment: An Experimental Evaluation in Medellín,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, February 2020.
• Collins, T., R. Greenberg, M. Siegel, Z. Xuan, E. F. Rothman, S. W. Cronin, and D. Hemenway, “State Firearm Laws and Interstate Transfer of Guns in the USA, 2006–2016,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 95, No. 3, June 2018, pp. 322–336.
• Colorado Firearm Safety Coalition, “Gun Storage Map,” webpage, undated. As of December 7, 2021: https://coloradofirearmsafetycoalition.org/gun-storage-map/
• Colquhoun, D., “An Investigation of the False Discovery Rate and the Misinterpretation of p-Values,” Royal Society Open Science, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2014.
• Conley, Timothy G., and Christopher R. Taber, “Inference with ‘Difference in Differences’ with a Small Number of Policy Changes,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 93, No. 1, 2011, pp. 113–125.
• Conner, Andrew, Deborah Azrael, Vivian H. Lyons, Catherine Barber, and Matthew Miller, “Validating the National Violent Death Reporting System as a Source of Data on Fatal Shootings of Civilians by Law Enforcement Officers,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 109, No. 4, 2019, pp. 578–584.
• Conner, Andrew, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Suicide Case-Fatality Rates in the United States, 2007 to 2014: A Nationwide Population-Based Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 171, No. 12, 2019, pp. 885–895.
• Conner, Andrew, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Firearm Safety Discussions Between Clinicians and U.S. Adults Living in Households with Firearms: Results From a 2019 National Survey,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 174, No. 5, May 2021, pp. 725–728.
• Conwell, Y., P. R. Duberstein, K. Connor, S. Eberly, C. Cox, and E. D. Caine, “Access to Firearms and Risk for Suicide in Middle-Aged and Older Adults,” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2002, pp. 407–416.
• Cook, Philip J., “The Saturday Night Special: An Assessment of Alternative Definitions from a Policy Perspective,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 72, No. 4, 1981, pp. 1735–1745.
• Cook, Philip J., “The Influence of Gun Availability on Violent Crime Patterns,” Crime and Justice, Vol. 4, 1983, pp. 49–89.
• Cook, Philip J., “The Case of the Missing Victims: Gunshot Woundings in the National Crime Survey,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 1, No. 1, March 1985, pp. 91–102.
• Cook, Philip J., “The Great American Gun War: Notes from Four Decades in the Trenches,” Crime and Justice, Vol. 42, No. 1, 2013, pp. 19–73.
• Cook, Philip J., and Anthony A. Braga, “Comprehensive Firearms Tracing: Strategic and Investigative Uses of New Data on Firearms Markets,” Arizona Law Review, Vol. 43, No. 2, 2001, pp. 277–309.
• Cook, P. J., A. A. Braga, B. S. Turchan, and L. M. Barao, “Why Do Gun Murders Have a Higher Clearance Rate Than Gunshot Assaults?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 18, No. 3, 2019, pp. 525–551.
• Cook, Philip J., and Kristin A. Goss, The Gun Debate: What Everyone Needs to Know, New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
• Cook, P. J., and J. A. Leitzel, “‘Perversity, Futility, Jeopardy’: An Economic Analysis of the Attack on Gun Control,” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 59, No. 1, 1996, pp. 91–118.
• Cook, Philip J., and Jens Ludwig, Guns in America: Results of a Comprehensive National Survey on Firearms Ownership and Use, Washington, D.C.: Police Foundation, 1996.
• Cook, Philip J., and Jens Ludwig, Guns in America: National Survey on Private Ownership and Use of Firearms: Research in Brief, Rockville, Md.: National Institute of Justice, 1997.
• Cook, Philip J., and Jens Ludwig, “Defensive Gun Uses: New Evidence from a National Survey,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998, pp. 111–131.
• Cook, Philip J., and Jens Ludwig, “The Effect of the Brady Act on Gun Violence,” in B. Harcourt, ed., Guns, Crime, and Punishment in America, New York: New York University Press, 2003, pp. 283–298.
• Cook, Philip J., and Jens Ludwig, “The Social Costs of Gun Ownership,” Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 90, No. 1–2, 2006, pp. 379–391.
• Cook, P. J., and J. Ludwig, “Policing Guns: Why Gun Violence Is Not (Just) a Public Health Problem,” Items: Insights from the Social Sciences, November 6, 2018.
• Cook, Philip J., J. Ludwig, and A. A. Braga, “Criminal Records of Homicide Offenders,” JAMA, Vol. 294, No. 5, 2005, pp. 598–601.
• Cook, Philip J., Jens Ludwig, and David Hemenway, “The Gun Debate’s New Mythical Number: How Many Defensive Uses Per Year?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1997, pp. 463–469.
• Cook, P. J., J. Ludwig, S. Venkatesh, and A. A. Braga, “Underground Gun Markets,” Economic Journal, Vol. 117, 2007, pp. F558–F888.
• Cook, Philip J., Stephanie Molliconi, and Thomas B. Cole, “Regulating Gun Markets,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 86, No. 1, 1995, pp. 59–92.
• Cook, Philip J., Susan T. Parker, and Harold A. Pollack, “Sources of Guns to Dangerous People: What We Learn by Asking Them,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 79, 2015, pp. 28–36.
• Cook, P. J., and H. A. Pollack, “Reducing Access to Guns by Violent Offenders,” presented at RSF Journal Conference: The Underground Gun Market, April 2016.
• Cook, Philip J., and Harold A. Pollack, “Reducing Access to Guns by Violent Offenders,” Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 5, October 2017, pp. 2–36.
• Cook, Philip J., Harold A. Pollack, and Kailey White, Results of the Chicago Inmate Survey of Gun Access and Use, Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Crime Lab, January 2018.
• Cook, P. J., H. A. Pollack, and K. White, “The Last Link: From Gun Acquisition to Criminal Use,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 96, No. 5, 2019, pp. 784–791.
• Cook, Philip J., Ariadne E. Rivera-Aguirre, Magdalena Cerdá, and Garen Wintemute, “Constant Lethality of Gunshot Injuries from Firearm Assault: United States, 2003–2012,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 107, No. 8, 2017, pp. 1324–1328.
• Cooper, Alexia, and Erica L. Smith, Homicide Trends in the United States 1980–2008, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, November 2011.
• Cordner, G., and E. P. Biebel, “Problem‐Oriented Policing in Practice,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2005, pp. 155–180.
• Corrigan, P. W., and A. C. Watson, “Findings from the National Comorbidity Survey on the Frequency of Violent Behavior in Individuals with Psychiatric Disorders,” Psychiatry Research, Vol. 136, 2005, pp. 153–162.
• Corsaro, N., “More Than Lightning in a Bottle and Far from Ready-Made,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2018, pp. 251–259.
• Cox, D. R., and E. J. Snell, Analysis of Binary Data, 2nd ed., New York: Chapman and Hall, 1989.
• Cox, Georgina R., Christabel Owens, Jo Robinson, Angela Nicholas, Anne Lockley, Michelle Williamson, Yee Tak Derek Cheung, and Jane Pirkis, “Interventions to Reduce Suicides at Suicide Hotspots: A Systematic Review,” BMC Public Health, Vol. 13, 2013.
• Crafton, R. Eliot, Jane G. Gravelle, and William J. Krouse, Guns, Excise Taxes, Wildlife Restoration, and the National Firearms Act, Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, R45123, March 5, 2018.
• Cramer, Clayton E., “Why the FBI’s Justifiable Homicide Statistics Are a Misleading Measure of Defensive Gun Use,” University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy, Vol. 27, 2016, pp. 505–514.
• Cramer, Clayton E., and David B. Kopel, “‘Shall Issue’: The New Wave of Concealed Handgun Permit Laws,” Tennessee Law Review, Vol. 62, No. 3, 2005, pp. 679–757.
• Crifasi, Cassandra K., Mitchell L. Doucette, Emma E. McGinty, Daniel W. Webster, and Colleen L. Barry, “Storage Practices of US Gun Owners in 2016,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 108, No. 4, 2018a, pp. 532–537.
• Crifasi, Cassandra K., Alexander D. McCourt, Marisa D. Booty, and Daniel W. Webster, “Policies to Prevent Illegal Acquisition of Firearms: Impacts on Diversions of Guns for Criminal Use, Violence, and Suicide,” Current Epidemiology Reports, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2019, pp. 238–247.
• Crifasi, Cassandra K., Molly Merrill-Francis, Alex McCourt, Jon S. Vernick, Garen J. Wintemute, and Daniel W. Webster, “Association Between Firearm Laws and Homicide in Urban Counties,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 95, No. 3, 2018b, pp. 383–390.
• Crifasi, C. K., J. S. Meyers, J. S. Vernick, and D. W. Webster, “Effects of Changes in Permit-to-Purchase Handgun Laws in Connecticut and Missouri on Suicide Rates,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 79, 2015, pp. 43–49.
• Crifasi, Cassandra K., Keshia M. Pollack, and Daniel W. Webster, “Effects of State-Level Policy Changes on Homicide and Nonfatal Shootings of Law Enforcement Officers,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2016, pp. 274–278.
• Crime Prevention Research Center, “Updated: More Misleading Information from Bloomberg’s Everytown for Gun Safety on Guns: ‘Analysis of Recent Mass Shootings,’ Showing How Mass Public Shootings Keep Occurring in Gun-Free Zones,” September 1, 2014.
• Crime Prevention Research Center, “Updated: Mass Public Shootings Keep Occurring in Gun-Free Zones: 94% of Attacks Since 1950,” June 15, 2018a.
• Crime Prevention Research Center, “States That Allow Teachers and School Staff to Carry Guns,” October 9, 2018b.
• Criminal Justice Information Services Division, National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) Operations 2013, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2014.
• Criminal Justice Information Services Division, National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) Operations 2014, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2015.
• Criminal Justice Information Services Division, “National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) Section Active Records in the NICS Indices,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, December 31, 2016.
• Criminal Justice Information Services Division, “National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) Section: Active Records in the NICS Indices as of December 31, 2018,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, December 31, 2018.
• Criminal Justice Information Services Division, National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS) Section: 2018 Operations Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2019.
• Crosse, Marcia, Personal Firearms: Programs That Promote Safe Storage and Research on Their Effectiveness, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Accountability Office, GAO-17-665, September 2017.
• Csere, M., State Comparison of Gun Permit Fees, Hartford, Conn.: Connecticut General Assembly, Office of Legislative Research, OLR Research Report 2013-R-0048, 2013.
• Cummings, P., D. C. Grossman, F. P. Rivara, and T. D. Koepsell, “State Gun Safe Storage Laws and Child Mortality Due to Firearms,” JAMA, Vol. 278, No. 13, 1997a, pp. 1084–1086.
• Cummings, P., T. D. Koepsell, D. C. Grossman, J. Savarino, and R. S. Thompson, “The Association Between the Purchase of a Handgun and Homicide or Suicide,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 87, No. 6, 1997b, pp. 974–978.
• Curtin, Sally C., Margaret Warner, and Holly Hedegaard, Suicide Rates for Females and Males by Race and Ethnicity: United States, 1999 and 2014, Atlanta, Ga.: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016.
• Czyz, Ewa K., Adam G. Horwitz, Daniel Eisenberg, Anne Kramer, and Cheryl A. King, “Self-Reported Barriers to Professional Help Seeking Among College Students at Elevated Risk for Suicide,” Journal of American College Health, Vol. 61, No. 7, 2013, pp. 398–406.
• Dahlberg, L. L., R. M. Ikeda, and M. J. Kresnow, “Guns in the Home and Risk of a Violent Death in the Home: Findings from a National Study,” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 160, No. 10, 2004, pp. 929–936.
• Daigle, M. S., “Suicide Prevention Through Means Restriction: Assessing the Risk of Substitution—A Critical Review,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 37, 2005, pp. 625–632.
• de Jager, Elzerie, Eric Goralnick, Justin C. McCarty, Zain G. Hashmi, Molly P. Jarman, and Adil H. Haider, “Lethality of Civilian Active Shooter Incidents With and Without Semiautomatic Rifles in the United States,” JAMA, Vol. 320, No. 10, 2018, pp. 1034–1035.
• DeCicca, Philip, Donald Kenkel, and Feng Liu, “Excise Tax Avoidance: The Case of State Cigarette Taxes,” Journal of Health Economics, Vol. 32, No. 6, 2013, pp. 1130–1141.
• Degeling, M., and B. Berendt, “What Is Wrong About Robocops as Consultants? A Technology-Centric Critique of Predictive Policing,” AI and Society, Vol. 33, No. 3, 2018, pp. 347–356.
• Desai, R. A., D. Dausey, and R. A. Rosenheck, “Suicide Among Discharged Psychiatric Inpatients in the Department of Veterans Affairs,” Military Medicine, Vol. 173, No. 8, 2008, pp. 721–728.
• DeSimone, Jeff, and Sara Markowitz, The Effect of Child Access Prevention Laws on Non-Fatal Gun Injuries, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 11613, September 2005.
• DeSimone, J., S. Markowitz, and J. Xu, “Child Access Prevention Laws and Nonfatal Gun Injuries,” Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 80, No. 1, 2013, pp. 5–25.
• Desmarais, S. L., R. A. Van Dorn, K. L. Johnson, K. J. Grimm, K. S. Douglas, and M. S. Swartz, “Community Violence Perpetration and Victimization Among Adults with Mental Illness,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 104, 2014, pp. 2342–2349.
• Dezhbakhsh, Hashem, and Paul H. Rubin, “Lives Saved or Lives Lost? The Effects of Concealed-Handgun Laws on Crime,” American Economic Review, Vol. 88, No. 2, 1998, pp. 468–474.
• Diamond, Peter A., “Consumption Externalities and Imperfect Corrective Pricing,” Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1973, pp. 526–538.
• Dickey, Jay, and Mark Rosenberg, “How to Protect Gun Rights While Reducing the Toll of Gun Violence,” Washington Post, December 25, 2015.
• Díez, Carolina, Rachel P. Kurland, Emily F. Rothman, Megan Bair-Merritt, Eric Fleegler, Ziming Xuan, Sandro Galea, Craig S. Ross, Bindu Kalesan, Kristin A. Goss, and Michael Siegel, “State Intimate Partner Violence–Related Firearm Laws and Intimate Partner Homicide Rates in the United States, 1991 to 2015,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 167, No. 8, 2017, pp. 536–543.
• Diurba, Sofiya, Rachel L. Johnson, Bonnie J. Siry, Christopher E. Knoepke, Krithika Suresh, Scott A. Simpson, Deborah Azrael, Megan L. Ranney, Garen J. Wintemute, and Marian E. Betz, “Lethal Means Assessment and Counseling in the Emergency Department: Differences by Provider Type and Personal Home Firearms,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 50, No. 5, October 2020, pp. 1054–1064.
• Dixon, L., “Dual Diagnosis of Substance Use in Schizophrenia: Prevalence and Impact on Outcomes,” Schizophrenia Research, Vol. 35, Supp. 1, 1999, pp. S93–S100.
• Donohue, John J., “The Impact of Concealed Carry Laws,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 287–341.
• Donohue, John J., “Guns, Crime, and the Impact of State Right-to-Carry Laws,” Fordham Law Review, Vol. 73, No. 2, 2004, pp. 623–652.
• Donohue, John J., “Laws Facilitating Gun Carrying and Homicide,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 107, No. 12, 2017, pp. 1864–1865.
• Donohue, John J., “More Gun Carrying, More Violent Crime,” Econ Journal Watch, Vol. 15, No. 1, January 2018, pp. 67–82.
• Donohue, John J., Abhay Aneja, and Kyle D. Weber, Right-to-Carry Laws and Violent Crime: A Comprehensive Assessment Using Panel Data, the LASSO, and a State-Level Synthetic Controls Analysis, forthcoming.
• Donohue, John J., Abhay Aneja, and Kyle D. Weber, Right-to-Carry Laws and Violent Crime: A Comprehensive Assessment Using Panel Data and a State-Level Synthetic Control Analysis, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 23510, November 2018.
• Donohue, John J., Abhay Aneja, and Kyle D. Weber, “Right-to-Carry Laws and Violent Crime: A Comprehensive Assessment Using Panel Data and a State-Level Synthetic Control Analysis,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2019, pp. 198–247.
• Donohue, John J., and Steven D. Levitt, “The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 2, 2001, pp. 379–420.
• Doob, A. N., and C. M. Webster, “Sentence Severity and Crime: Accepting the Null Hypothesis,” Crime and Justice, Vol. 30, 2003, pp. 143–195.
• Draper, Norman R., and Harry Smith, Applied Regression Analysis, 3rd ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
• Duda, M. D., and K. C. Young, Factors Related to Hunting and Fishing Participation in the United States, Harrisonburg, Va.: Responsive Management, report for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Grant # 14-48-0009-92-1252, 1993.
• Duggan, Mark, “More Guns, More Crime,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 109, No. 5, 2001, pp. 1086–1114.
• Duggan, Mark, “Guns and Suicide,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 41–73.
• Duggan, Mark, Randi Hjalmarsson, and Brian A. Jacob, “The Short-Term and Localized Effect of Gun Shows: Evidence from California and Texas,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 93, No. 3, 2011, pp. 786–799.
• Duncan, O. D., As Compared to What? Offensive and Defensive Gun Use Surveys, 1973–1994, Rockville, Md.: National Institute of Justice, working paper 185056, 2000a.
• Duncan, O. D., “Gun Use Surveys: In Numbers We Trust?” Criminologist, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2000b, pp. 1–6.
• Durlauf, S. N., and D. S. Nagin, “Imprisonment and Crime: Can Both Be Reduced?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2011, pp. 13–54.
• Durlauf, Steven, Salvador Navarro, and David Rivers, “Model Uncertainty and the Effect of Shall-Issue Right-to-Carry Laws on Crime,” European Economic Review, Vol. 81, 2016, pp. 32–67.
• Duwe, Grant, “Body-Count Journalism: The Presentation of Mass Murder in the News Media,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2000, pp. 364–399.
• Duwe, Grant, “The Patterns and Prevalence of Mass Murder in Twentieth-Century America,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 4, 2004, pp. 729–761.
• Duwe, Grant, “The Patterns and Prevalence of Mass Public Shootings in the United States, 1915–2013,” in Laura C. Wilson, ed., The Wiley Handbook of the Psychology of Mass Shootings, West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons, 2017, pp. 20–35.
• Duwe, Grant, “Patterns and Prevalence of Lethal Mass Violence,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 17–35.
• Duwe, Grant, Tomislav Kovandzic, and Carlisle E. Moody, “The Impact of Right-to-Carry Concealed Firearm Laws on Mass Public Shootings,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2002, pp. 271–296.
• Eck, J. E., and W. Spelman, “Who Ya Gonna Call? The Police as Problem-Busters,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 33, No. 1, 1987, pp. 31–52.
• Edwards, Griffin, Erik Nesson, Joshua J. Robinson, and Fredrick Vars, “Looking Down the Barrel of a Loaded Gun: The Effect of Mandatory Handgun Purchase Delays on Homicide and Suicide,” Economic Journal, Vol. 128, No. 616, 2018, pp. 3117–3140.
• Ehrlich, Isaac, and Tetsuya Saito, “Taxing Guns vs. Taxing Crime: An Application of the ‘Market for Offenses Model,’” Journal of Policy Modeling, Vol. 32, No. 5, 2010, pp. 670–689.
• Elbogen, Eric B., and Sally C. Johnson, “The Intricate Link Between Violence and Mental Disorder: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 66, No. 2, February 2009, pp. 152–161.
• Elder, Randy W., Briana Lawrence, Aneeqah Ferguson, Timothy S. Naimi, Robert D. Brewer, Sajal K. Chattopadhyay, Traci L. Toomey, Jonathan E. Fielding, and Task Force on Community Preventive Services, “The Effectiveness of Tax Policy Interventions for Reducing Excessive Alcohol Consumption and Related Harms,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2010, pp. 217–229.
• Elsass, H. Jaymi, Jaclyn Schildkraut, and Mark C. Stafford, “Studying School Shootings: Challenges and Considerations for Research,” American Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2016, pp. 444–464.
• Entman, Robert M., and Kimberly A. Gross, “Race to Judgment: Stereotyping Media and Criminal Defendants,” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 71, No. 4, 2008, pp. 93–133.
• Everett, Sherry A., James H. Price, Archie W. Bedell, and Susan K. Telljohann, “Family Practice Physicians’ Firearm Safety Counseling Beliefs and Behaviors,” Journal of Community Health, Vol. 22, No. 5, October 1997, pp. 313–324.
• Everytown for Gun Safety Action Fund, “Solutions: Secure Gun Storage,” webpage, undated. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.everytown.org/solutions/responsible-gun-storage/
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, Shoot First: "Stand Your Ground" Laws and Their Effect on Violent Crime and the Criminal Justice System, New York, 2013.
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, Innocents Lost: A Year of Unintentional Child Gun Deaths, June 2014.
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, Strategies for Reducing Gun Violence in American Cities, June 2016.
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, “Be SMART,” webpage, 2017a. As of May 7, 2017: http://besmartforkids.org/
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, “Mass Shootings in the United States: 2009–2016,” April 11, 2017b.
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, “Mass Shootings in the United States: 2009–2017,” December 6, 2018. As of May 15, 2019: http://everytownresearch.org/reports/mass-shootings-analysis/
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, "Ten Years of Mass Shootings in the United States: An Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund Analysis," November 21, 2019. As of June 22, 2020: https://everytownresearch.org/massshootingsreports/mass-shootings-in-america-2009-2019/
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, Mayors Against Illegal Guns, and the National Urban League, Strategies for Reducing Gun Violence in American Cities, June 2016.
• Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, National Education Association, and American Federation of Teachers, Keeping Our Schools Safe: A Plan to Stop Mass Shootings and End Gun Violence in American Schools, February 11, 2019.
• Families Afield, An Initiative for the Future of Hunting, 2010.
• Fay, Robert E., and Mamadou S. Diallo, Developmental Estimates of Subnational Crime Rates Based on the National Crime Victimization Survey, Washington, D.C.: Westat, 2015.
• Fazel, Seena, Gautam G. Gulati, Louise Linsell, John R. Geddes, and Martin Grann, “Schizophrenia and Violence: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” PLoS Med, Vol. 6, No. 8, August 2009.
• FBI—See Federal Bureau of Investigation.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Clearances," webpage, Crime in the United States 2013, 2012. As of April 2, 2020: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2013/crime-in-the-u.s.-2013/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement/clearances/clearancetopic_final
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States: 2015, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, 2016a. As of March 8, 2017: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Crime in the United States 2015: Expanded Homicide Data Table 8,” webpage, 2016b. As of May 9, 2017: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015/tables/expanded_homicide_data_table_8_murder_victims_by_weapon_2011-2015.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Crime in the United States 2015: Expanded Homicide Data Table 15,” webpage, 2016c. As of May 9, 2017: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015/tables/expanded_homicide_data_table_15_justifiable_homicide_by_weapon_private_citizen_2011-2015.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Crime in the United States 2015: Expanded Homicide Data Table 28,” webpage, 2016d. As of May 9, 2017: https://ucr.fbi.gov/leoka/2015/tables/table_28_leos_fk_type_of_weapon_2006-2015.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Crime in the United States 2015: Violent Crime,” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2016e. As of May 8, 2017: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2015/crime-in-the-u.s.-2015/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement/violent-crime/violentcrimemain_final.pdf
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Active Records in the NICS Index,” April 30, 2017. As of May 8, 2017: https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/active_records_in_the_nics-index.pdf/view
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Homicide,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2017, 2018a. As of August 1, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/topic-pages/expanded-homicide
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Homicide Data Table 8: Murder Victims, by Weapon, 2013–2017,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2017, 2018b. As of May 13, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/tables/expanded-homicide-data-table-8.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Homicide Data Table 15: Justifiable Homicide, by Weapon, Private Citizen, 2013–2017,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2017, 2018c. As of May 13, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/tables/expanded-homicide-data-table-15.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Table 1: Crime in the United States, by Volume and Rate per 100,000 Inhabitants, 1998–2017,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2017, 2018d. As of August 1, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/tables/table-1
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Table 16: Rate: Number of Crimes Per 100,000 Inhabitants, by Population Group, 2017,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2017, 2018e. As of August 1, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime-in-the-u.s.-2017/tables/table-16
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, 30 Questions and Answers About NIBRS Transition, Washington, D.C., October 2018f.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, Active Shooter Incidents in the United States in 2016 and 2017, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, April 2018g.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Homicide Data Table 3: Murder Offenders, by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2018,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2018, 2019a. As of November 18, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018/tables/expanded-homicide-data-table-3.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Homicide Data Table 14: Justifiable Homicide, by Weapon, Law Enforcement, 2014–2018,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2018, 2019b. As of November 18, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018/tables/expanded-homicide-data-table-14.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Federal Denials: Reasons Why the NICS Section Denies,” webpage, 2019c. As of May 9, 2019: https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/federal_denials.pdf/view
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Table 28: Law Enforcement Officers Feloniously Killed, Type of Weapon, 2009–2018,” webpage, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted, 2019d. As of May 13, 2019: https://ucr.fbi.gov/leoka/2018/tables/table-28.xls
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2018 National Incident-Based Reporting System: Data Tables,” webpage, 2019e. As of June 19, 2020: https://ucr.fbi.gov/nibrs/2018/tables/data-tables
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Expanded Homicide,” webpage, Crime in the United States 2018, 2019f. As of June 19, 2020: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.-2018/topic-pages/expanded-homicide
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, Active Shooter Incidents in the United States in 2018, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, April 2019g.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation, Active Shooter Incidents in the United States in 2019, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, April 2020.
• Federal Commission on School Safety, Final Report of the Federal Commission on School Safety, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and U.S. Department of Homeland Security, December 18, 2018.
• Ferguson, Monika, Kate Rhodes, Mark Loughhead, Heather McIntyre, and Nicholas Procter, “The Effectiveness of the Safety Planning Intervention for Adults Experiencing Suicide-Related Distress: A Systematic Review,” Archives of Suicide Research, April 29, 2021, pp. 1–24.
• Finkelstein, Amy, “E-ZTAX: Tax Salience and Tax Rates,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 124, No. 3, 2009, pp. 969–1010.
• Firearms News, homepage, undated. As of January 13, 2021: https://www.firearmsnews.com
• Fjestad, S. P., Blue Book of Gun Values, 38th ed., Minneapolis, Minn.: Blue Book Publications, 2017.
• Fleischer, Victor, “Curb Your Enthusiasm for Pigovian Taxes,” Vanderbilt Law Review, Vol. 68, No. 6, 2015, pp. 1673–1713.
• Follman, Mark, Gavin Aronsen, and Deanna Pan, “U.S. Mass Shootings, 1982–2017: Data from Mother Jones’ Investigation,” Mother Jones, June 14, 2017.
• Follman, Mark, Gavin Aronsen, and Deanna Pan, “US Mass Shootings, 1982–2019: Data from Mother Jones’ Investigation,” Mother Jones, August 31, 2019.
• Follman, Mark, Gavin Aronsen, and Deanna Pan, “US Mass Shootings, 1982–2020: Data from Mother Jones’ Investigation,” Mother Jones, February 26, 2020.
• Fortunato, David, “Can Easing Concealed Carry Deter Crime?” Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2015, pp. 1071–1085.
• Fowler, Katherine A., Linda L. Dahlberg, Tadesse Haileyesus, Carmen Gutierrez, and Sarah Bacon, “Childhood Firearm Injuries in the United States,” Pediatrics, Vol. 140, No. 1, 2017.
• Fox, A. M., and K. J. Novak, “Collaborating to Reduce Violence: The Impact of Focused Deterrence in Kansas City,” Police Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 3, 2018, pp. 283–308.
• Fox, James Alan, “Missing Data Problems in the SHR: Imputing Offender and Relationship Characteristics,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2004, pp. 214–254.
• Fox, James Alan, Uniform Crime Reports (United States): Supplementary Homicide Reports, 1976–1994, Boston, Mass.: Northeastern University, College of Criminal Justice, January 18, 2006.
• Fox, James Alan, and Monica J. DeLateur, “Mass Shootings in America: Moving Beyond Newtown,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2014, pp. 125–145.
• Fox, James A., and Emma E. Fridel, “The Tenuous Connections Involving Mass Shootings, Mental Illness, and Gun Laws,” Violence and Gender, Vol. 3, No. 1, 2016, pp. 14–19.
• Fox, James Alan, and Jack Levin, “Multiple Homicide: Patterns of Serial and Mass Murder,” Crime and Justice, Vol. 23, 1998, pp. 407–455.
• Fox, James A., and Jack Levin, Extreme Killing: Understanding Serial and Mass Murder, 3rd ed., Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2015.
• Fox, James Alan, and Marc L. Swatt, “Multiple Imputation of the Supplementary Homicide Reports, 1976–2005,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2009, pp. 51–77.
• Franklin, Joseph C., Jessica D. Ribeiro, Kathryn R. Fox, Kate H. Bentley, Evan M. Kleiman, Xieyining Huang, Katherine M. Musacchio, Adam C. Jaroszweski, Bernard P. Chang, and Matthew K. Nock, “Risk Factors for Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis of 50 Years of Research,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 143, No. 2, 2017, pp. 187–232.
• Freed, L. H., D. W. Webster, J. J. Longwell, J. Carrese, and M. H. Wilson, “Factors Preventing Gun Acquisition and Carrying Among Incarcerated Adolescent Males,” JAMA Pediatrics, Vol. 155, 2001, pp. 335–341.
• Freedman, David A., “On the So-Called ‘Huber Sandwich Estimator’ and ‘Robust Standard Errors,’” American Statistician, Vol. 60, No. 4, 2006, pp. 299–302.
• French, B., and P. J. Heagerty, “Analysis of Longitudinal Data to Evaluate a Policy Change,” Statistics in Medicine, Vol. 27, No. 24, 2008, pp. 5005–5025.
• Fridel, Emma E., “A Multivariate Comparison of Family, Felony, and Public Mass Murders in the United States,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 36, No. 3–4, 2017, pp. 1092–1118.
• Funk, T. Markus, “Gun Control and Economic Discrimination: The Melting-Point Case-in-Point,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 85, No. 3, 1995, pp. 764–806.
• Gehrsitz, Markus, Henry Saffer, and Michael Grossman, The Effect of Changes in Alcohol Tax Differentials on Alcohol Consumption, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 27117, May 2020.
• Gelman, Andrew, and John Carlin, “Beyond Power Calculations: Assessing Type S (Sign) and Type M (Magnitude) Errors,” Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2014, pp. 641–651.
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Assault Weapons,” webpage, undated-a. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/hardware-ammunition/assault-weapons/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Browse Gun Laws by State,” webpage, undated-b. As of November 10, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/search-gun-law-by-state/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Categories of Prohibited People,” webpage, undated-c. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/who-can-have-a-gun/categories-of-prohibited-people/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Guns in Schools,” webpage, undated-d. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/guns-in-public/guns-in-schools/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Maintaining Records of Gun Sales,” webpage, undated-e. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/gun-sales/maintaining-records-of-gun-sales/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “‘Stand Your Ground’ Laws,” webpage, undated-f. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/guns-in-public/stand-your-ground-laws/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Universal Background Checks,” webpage, undated-g. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/background-checks/universal-background-checks/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Waiting Periods,” webpage, undated-h. As of October 18, 2017: http://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/gun-sales/waiting-periods/
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, "Location Restrictions," webpage, undated-i. As of January 27, 2020: https://lawcenter.giffords.org/gun-laws/policy-areas/guns-in-public/location-restrictions
• Giffords Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Child and Consumer Safety: Safe Storage,” webpage, undated-j. As of December 7, 2021: https://giffords.org/lawcenter/gun-laws/policy-areas/child-consumer-safety/safe-storage/
• Gill, J. R., and M. Pasquale-Styles, “Firearm Deaths by Law Enforcement,” Journal of Forensic Science, Vol. 54, No. 1, 2009, pp. 185–188.
• Gilmour, Stuart, Kittima Wattanakamolkul, and Maaya Kita Sugai, “The Effect of the Australian National Firearms Agreement on Suicide and Homicide Mortality, 1978–2015,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 108, No. 11, November 2018, pp. 1511–1516.
• Ginwalla, Rashna, Peter Rhee, Randall Friese, Donald J. Green, Lynn Gries, Bellal Joseph, Narong Kulvatunyou, Dafney Lubin, Terence O’Keeffe, Gary Vercruysse, Julie Wynne, and Andrew Tang, “Repeal of the Concealed Weapons Law and Its Impact on Gun-Related Injuries and Deaths,” Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, Vol. 76, No. 3, 2014, pp. 569–575.
• Gius, Mark, “An Examination of the Effects of Concealed Weapons Laws and Assault Weapons Bans on State-Level Murder Rates,” Applied Economics Letters, Vol. 21, No. 4, 2014, pp. 265–267.
• Gius, Mark, “The Effects of State and Federal Background Checks on State-Level Gun-Related Murder Rates,” Applied Economics, Vol. 47, No. 38, 2015a, pp. 4090–4101.
• Gius, Mark, “The Impact of Minimum Age and Child Access Prevention Laws on Firearm-Related Youth Suicides and Unintentional Deaths,” Social Science Journal, Vol. 52, No. 2, 2015b, pp. 168–175.
• Gius, Mark, “The Impact of State and Federal Assault Weapons Bans on Public Mass Shootings,” Applied Economics Letters, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2015c, pp. 281–284.
• Gius, Mark, “Effects of Permit-to-Purchase Laws on State-Level Firearm Murder Rates,” Atlantic Economic Journal, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2017, pp. 73–80.
• Gius, Mark, “The Effects of State and Federal Gun Control Laws on School Shootings,” Applied Economics Letters, Vol. 25, No. 5, 2018, pp. 317–320.
• Glaeser, Edward L., and Spencer Glendon, “Who Owns Guns? Criminals, Victims, and the Culture of Violence,” American Economic Review, Vol. 88, No. 2, May 1998, pp. 458–462.
• Glatt, K. M., “Helpline: Suicide Prevention at a Suicide Site,” Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, Vol. 17, 1987, pp. 299–309.
• Gold, Sharon L., “Why Are Victims of Domestic Violence Still Dying at the Hands of Their Abusers? Filling the Gap in State Domestic Violence Gun Laws,” Kentucky Law Journal, Vol. 91, No. 4, 2003, pp. 935–955.
• Good, Phillip I., and James W. Hardin, Common Errors in Statistics (And How to Avoid Them), 4th ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2012.
• Goolsbee, Austan, Michael F. Lovenheim, and Joel Slemrod, “Playing with Fire: Cigarettes, Taxes, and Competition from the Internet,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2010, pp. 131–154.
• Grambsch, P., “Regression to the Mean, Murder Rates, and Shall-Issue Laws,” American Statistician, Vol. 62, No. 4, 2008, pp. 289–295.
• Grant, Bridget F., Frederick S. Stinson, Deborah A. Dawson, S. Patricia Chou, Mary C. Dufour, Wilson Compton, Roger P. Pickering, and Kenneth Kaplan, “Prevalence and Co-Occurrence of Substance Use Disorders and Independent Mood and Anxiety Disorders: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 61, No. 8, 2004, pp. 807–816.
• Grassel, K. M., G. J. Wintemute, M. A. Wright, and M. P. Romero, “Association Between Handgun Purchase and Mortality from Firearm Injury,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2003, pp. 48–52.
• Greenland, Sander, Mohammad Ali Mansournia, and Douglas G. Altman, “Sparse Data Bias: A Problem Hiding in Plain Sight,” BMJ, Vol. 353, 2016, pp. 1–6.
• Grinshteyn, Erin, and David Hemenway, “Violent Death Rates: The US Compared with Other High-Income OECD Countries, 2010,” American Journal of Medicine, Vol. 129, No. 3, March 2016, pp. 266–273.
• Groff, E. R., J. H. Ratcliffe, C. P. Haberman, E. T. Sorg, N. M. Joyce, and R. B. Taylor, “Does What Police Do at Hot Spots Matter? The Philadelphia Policing Tactics Experiment,” Criminology, Vol. 53, No. 1, 2015, pp. 21–53.
• Grogger, J., “The Effects of Civil Gang Injunctions on Reported Violent Crime: Evidence from Los Angeles County,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 45, No. 1, 2002, pp. 69–90.
• Grossman, David C., Peter Cummings, Thomas D. Koepsell, Jean Marshall, Luann D’Ambrosio, Robert S. Thompson, and Chris Mack, “Firearm Safety Counseling in Primary Care Pediatrics: A Randomized, Controlled Trial,” Pediatrics, Vol. 106, No. 1, 2000, pp. 22–26.
• Grossman, D. C., B. A. Mueller, C. Riedy, M. D. Dowd, A. Villaveces, J. Prodzinski, J. Nakagawara, J. Howard, N. Thiersch, and R. Harruff, “Gun Storage Practices and Risk of Youth Suicide and Unintentional Firearm Injuries,” JAMA, Vol. 293, No. 6, 2005, pp. 707–714.
• Grossman, D. C., D. T. Reay, and S. A. Baker, “Self-Inflicted and Unintentional Firearm Injuries Among Children and Adolescents,” JAMA Pediatrics, Vol. 153, No. 8, 1999, pp. 875–878.
• Grossman, David C., Helen A. Stafford, Thomas D. Koepsell, Ryan Hill, Kyla D. Retzer, and Ward Jones, “Improving Firearm Storage in Alaska Native Villages: A Randomized Trial of Household Gun Cabinets,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 102, No. S2, 2012, pp. S291–S297.
• Grossman, Richard S., and Stephen A. Lee, “May Issue Versus Shall Issue: Explaining the Pattern of Concealed-Carry Handgun Laws, 1960–2001,” Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2008, pp. 198–206.
• Grunwald, B., and A. V. Papachristos, “Project Safe Neighborhoods in Chicago: Looking Back a Decade Later,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 107, No. 1, 2017, pp. 131–159.
• Gu, Jackie, “Deadliest Mass Shootings Are Often Preceded by Violence at Home,” Bloomberg News, June 30, 2020.
• Guettabi, Mouhcine, and Abdul Munasib, “Stand Your Ground Laws, Homicides and Gun Deaths,” Regional Studies, Vol. 52, No. 9, 2018, pp. 1250–1260.
• Gun Violence Archive, homepage, undated-a. As of June 26, 2020: http://www.gunviolencearchive.org/
• Gun Violence Archive, “Mass Shootings,” webpage, undated-b. As of October 25, 2017: http://www.gunviolencearchive.org/reports/mass-shooting
• Hahn, Robert A., Oleg Bilukha, Alex Crosby, Mindy T. Fullilove, Akiva Liberman, Eve Moscicki, Susan Snyder, Farris Tuma, and Peter A. Briss, “Firearms Laws and the Reduction of Violence: A Systematic Review,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 28, No. 2, 2005, pp. 40–71.
• Hamill, Mark E., Matthew C. Hernandez, Kent R. Bailey, Martin D. Zielinski, Miguel A. Matos, and Henry J. Schiller, “State Level Firearm Concealed-Carry Legislation and Rates of Homicide and Other Violent Crime,” Journal of the American College of Surgeons, Vol. 228, No. 1, 2019, pp. 1–8.
• Hanlon, Thomas J., Catherine Barber, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Type of Firearm Used in Suicides: Findings from 13 States in the National Violent Death Reporting System, 2005–2015,” Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 65, No. 3, 2019, pp. 366–370.
• Harlow, Caroline Wolf, Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities: Firearm Use by Offenders, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 189369, November 2001.
• Harrell, Erika, Crime Against Persons with Disabilities, 2009–2015—Statistical Tables, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 250632, 2017.
• Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Means Matter, “Gun Shop Project,” webpage, undated. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/means-matter/gun-shop-project/
• HCUPnet: Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project, web tool, undated. As of October 18, 2019: https://hcupnet.ahrq.gov
• Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Fast Stats, “Opioid-Related Hospital Use,” web tool, April 2019. As of November 14, 2019: https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/faststats/OpioidUseServlet
• Hedegaard, Holly, Sally C. Curtin, and Margaret Warner, “Suicide Mortality in the United States, 1999–2017,” National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief, No. 330, November 2018.
• Helland, E., and A. Tabarrok, “Using Placebo Laws to Test ‘More Guns, Less Crime,’” Advances in Economic Analysis and Policy, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2004.
• Hemenway, David, “Survey Research and Self-Defense Gun Use: An Explanation of Extreme Overestimates,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 87, No. 4, 1997, pp. 1430–1445.
• Hemenway, David, and Deborah Azrael, “The Relative Frequency of Offensive and Defensive Gun Uses: Results from a National Survey,” Violence and Victims, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2000, pp. 257–272.
• Hemenway, David, Deborah Azrael, Andrew Conner, and Matthew Miller, “Variation in Rates of Fatal Police Shootings Across U.S. States: The Role of Firearm Availability,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 96, No. 1, 2019a, pp. 63–73.
• Hemenway, David, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Gun Use in the United States: Results from Two National Surveys,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2000, pp. 263–267.
• Hemenway, David, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Whose Guns Are Stolen? The Epidemiology of Gun Theft Victims,” Injury Epidemiology, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2017, p. 11.
• Hemenway, David, Steven Rausher, Pina Violano, Toby A. Raybould, and Catherine W. Barber, “Firearms Training: What Is Actually Taught?” Injury Prevention, Vol. 25, No. 2, 2019b, pp. 123–128.
• Hemenway, David, and Sara J. Solnick, “Children and Unintentional Firearm Death,” Injury Epidemiology, Vol. 2, No. 26, 2015a.
• Hemenway, David, and Sara J. Solnick, “The Epidemiology of Self-Defense Gun Use: Evidence from the National Crime Victimization Surveys 2007–2011,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 79, 2015b, pp. 22–27.
• Hemenway, David, Sara J. Solnick, and Deborah R. Azrael, “Firearm Training and Storage,” JAMA, Vol. 273, No. 1, 1995, pp. 46–50.
• Hempstead, Katherine, and Antonio Rodríguez Andrés, Gun Control and Suicide: The Impact of State Firearm Regulations, 1995–2004, La Paz, Bolivia: Institute for Advanced Development Studies, Development Research Working Paper No. 17/2009, December 2009.
• Hennigan, K. M., and D. Sloane, “Improving Civil Gang Injunctions: How Implementation Can Affect Gang Dynamics, Crime, and Violence,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2013, pp. 7–41.
• Hepburn, L., D. Azrael, M. Miller, and D. Hemenway, “The Effect of Child Access Prevention Laws on Unintentional Child Firearm Fatalities, 1979–2000,” Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care, Vol. 61, No. 2, 2006, pp. 423–428.
• Hepburn, Lisa, Matthew Miller, Deborah Azrael, and David Hemenway, “The Effect of Nondiscretionary Concealed Weapon Carrying Laws on Homicide,” Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care, Vol. 56, No. 3, 2004, pp. 676–681.
• Hernandez, Elizabeth, “At Least 30 Colorado School Districts and Charter Schools Allow Teachers to Carry Guns, but No Statewide Training Standards Regulate Them,” Denver Post, July 8, 2018.
• Higgins, Julian P. T., and Sally Green, eds., Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Version 5.1.0, London: Cochrane Collaboration, March 2011.
• Hines, James R., Jr., “Taxing Consumption and Other Sins,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2007, pp. 49–68.
• Hipple, N. K., E. F. McGarrell, M. O’Brien, and B. M. Huebner, “Gun Crime Incident Reviews as a Strategy for Enhancing Problem Solving and Information Sharing,” Journal of Crime and Justice, Vol. 40, No. 1, 2017, pp. 50–67.
• Hodur, Nancy M., F. Larry Leistritz, and Kara L. Wolfe, “Developing the Nature-Based Tourism Sector in Southwestern North Dakota,” Great Plains Research: A Journal of Natural and Social Sciences, Vol. 18, Spring 2008, pp. 81–92.
• Hoffman, Steven J., and Charlie Tan, “Overview of Systematic Reviews on the Health-Related Effects of Government Tobacco Control Policies,” BMC Public Health, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2015.
• Hoops, Katherine E. M., Emily Hernandez, Susan Ziegfeld, Isam Nasr, and Cassandra Crifasi, “Evaluating the Use of a Pamphlet as an Educational Tool to Improve Safe Firearm Storage in the Home,” Clinical Pediatrics, Vol. 60, No. 1, January 2021, pp. 67–70.
• Horman, B. Gil, “6 Ways to Safely Store Your Firearms,” NRA Family, webpage, October 13, 2021. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.nrafamily.org/articles/2021/10/13/6-ways-to-safely-store-your-firearms
• Horn, Dara L., Elissa K. Butler, Jessica L. Stahl, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, and Alyson J. Littman, “A Multi-State Evaluation of the Association Between Mental Health and Firearm Storage Practices,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 145, April 2021, 106389.
• Hoskin, Anthony, “Household Gun Prevalence and Rates of Violent Crime: A Test of Competing Gun Theories,” Criminal Justice Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2011, pp. 125–136.
• Hoyt, L., and D. Gopal‐Agge, “The Business Improvement District Model: A Balanced Review of Contemporary Debates,” Geography Compass, Vol. 1, No. 4, 2007, pp. 946–958.
• Hudak, Lauren, Henry Schwimmer, Wiliam Warnock, Sarah Kilborn, Tim Moran, Jeremy Ackerman, and Jonathan Rupp, “Patient Characteristics and Perspectives of Firearm Safety Discussions in the Emergency Department,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 22, No. 3, May 19, 2021, pp. 478–487.
• Huff‐Corzine, Lin, and Jay Corzine, “The Devil’s in the Details: Measuring Mass Violence,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 317–333.
• Huff-Corzine, Lin, James C. McCutcheon, Jay Corzine, John P. Jarvis, Melissa J. Tetzlaff-Bemiller, Mindy Weller, and Matt Landon, “Shooting for Accuracy: Comparing Data Sources on Mass Murder,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2014, pp. 105–124.
• Hughes, Karen, Mark A. Bellis, Lisa Jones, Sara Wood, Geoff Bates, Lindsay Eckley, Ellie McCoy, Christopher Mikton, Tom Shakespeare, and Alana Officer, “Prevalence and Risk of Violence Against Adults with Disabilities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies,” Lancet, Vol. 379, 2012, pp. 1621–1629.
• Humphreys, David K., Antonio Gasparrini, and Douglas J. Wiebe, “Evaluating the Impact of Florida’s ‘Stand Your Ground’ Self-Defense Law on Homicide and Suicide by Firearm: An Interrupted Time Series Study,” JAMA Internal Medicine, Vol. 177, No. 1, 2017, pp. 44–50.
• Hunter Ed, “Storing Your Firearm,” webpage, undated. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.hunter-ed.com/national/studyGuide/Storing-Your-Firearm/201099_92868
• Hureau, David M., and Anthony A. Braga, “The Trade in Tools: The Market for Illicit Guns in High-Risk Networks,” Criminology, Vol. 56, No. 3, 2018, pp. 510–545.
• IBISWorld, Guns and Ammunition Manufacturing in the U.S.: Market Research Report, Los Angeles, Calif., August 2016.
• Ilgen, M. A., K. Zivin, R. J. McCammon, and M. Valenstein, “Mental Illness, Previous Suicidality, and Access to Guns in the United States,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 59, No. 2, 2008, pp. 198–200.
• Institute of Medicine, Finding What Works in Health Care: Standards for Systematic Reviews, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2011.
• Ivey, Kay, Governor, “Memorandum: Implementation of the Alabama Sentry Program and the School Safety Training and Compliance Teams,” State of Alabama, May 30, 2018.
• Jagodič, Helena Korošec, Tatjana Rokavec, Mark Agius, and Peter Pregelj, “Availability of Mental Health Service Providers and Suicide Rates in Slovenia: A Nationwide Ecological Study,” Croatian Medical Journal, Vol. 54, No. 5, 2013, pp. 444–452.
• James, N., Recent Violent Crime Trends in the United States, Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, R45236, 2018.
• Jennissen, Charles A., Kristel M. Wetjen, Cole C. Wymore, Nicholas R. Stange, Gerene M. Denning, Junlin Liao, and Kelly E. Wood, “Firearm Exposure and Storage Practices in the Homes of Rural Adolescents,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 22, No. 3, May 19, 2021, pp. 498–509.
• Joe, S., S. C. Marcus, and M. S. Kaplan, “Racial Differences in the Characteristics of Firearm Suicide Decedents in the United States,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 77, No. 1, 2007, pp. 124–130.
• Johnson, R. M., C. Barber, D. Azrael, D. E. Clark, and D. Hemenway, “Who Are the Owners of Firearms Used in Adolescent Suicides?” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 40, No. 6, 2010, pp. 609–611.
• Johnson, Renee M., Tamera Coyne-Beasley, and Carol W. Runyan, “Firearm Ownership and Storage Practices, U.S. Households, 1992–2002. A Systematic Review,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 27, No. 2, August 2004, pp. 173–182.
• Johnson, Renee M., Elaine M. Frank, Mark Ciocca, and Catherine W. Barber, “Training Mental Healthcare Providers to Reduce At-Risk Patients’ Access to Lethal Means of Suicide: Evaluation of the CALM Project,” Archives of Suicide Research, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2011, pp. 259–264.
• Johnston, Jeff, “Can Ammunition ‘Go Bad’?” NRA Family, October 28, 2019.
• Jones, Edward D., III, “The District of Columbia’s ‘Firearms Control Regulations Act of 1975’: The Toughest Handgun Control Law in the United States—or Is It?” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 455, 1981, pp. 138–149.
• Joossens, Luk, and Martin Raw, “From Cigarette Smuggling to Illicit Tobacco Trade,” Tobacco Control, Vol. 21, No. 2, 2012, pp. 230–234.
• Joshi, M., and S. B. Sorenson, “Intimate Partner Violence at the Scene: Incident Characteristics and Implications for Public Health Surveillance,” Evaluation Review, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2010, pp. 116–136.
• Juodis, Marcus, Andrew Starzomski, Stephen Porter, and Michael Woodworth, “A Comparison of Domestic and Non-Domestic Homicides: Further Evidence for Distinct Dynamics and Heterogeneity of Domestic Homicide Perpetrators,” Journal of Family Violence, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2014, pp. 299–313.
• Kagawa, Rose M. C., Alvaro Castillo-Carniglia, Jon S. Vernick, Daniel Webster, Cassandra Crifasi, Kara E. Rudolph, Magdalena Cerdá, Aaron Shev, and Garen J. Wintemute, “Repeal of Comprehensive Background Check Policies and Firearm Homicide and Suicide,” Epidemiology, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2018, pp. 494–502.
• Kahan, Dan M., “The Politically Motivated Reasoning Paradigm, Part 2: Unanswered Questions,” in Robert Scott and Stephen Kosslyn, eds., Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2016.
• Kahan, Dan M., “On the Sources of Ordinary Science Knowledge and Extraordinary Science Ignorance,” in Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Dan M. Kahan, and Dietram A. Scheufele, eds., Oxford Handbook of the Science of Science Communication, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2017.
• Kahan, Dan M., E. Peters, E. Dawson, and P. Slovic, “Motivated Numeracy and Enlightened Self-Government,” Behavioural Public Policy, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2017, pp. 54–86.
• Kahane, Leo H., “Understanding the Interstate Export of Crime Guns: A Gravity Model Approach,” Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol. 31, No. 3, 2013, pp. 618–634.
• Kahane, Leo H., “State Gun Laws and the Movement of Crime Guns Between States,” International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 61, 2020.
• Kalesan, Bindu, Kinan Lagast, Marcos Villarreal, Elizabeth Pino, Jeffrey Fagan, and Sandro Galea, “School Shootings During 2013–2015 in the USA,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 23, No. 5, 2017, pp. 321–327.
• Kalesan, Bindu, Matthew E. Mobily, Olivia Keiser, Jeffrey A. Fagan, and Sandro Galea, “Firearm Legislation and Firearm Mortality in the USA: A Cross-Sectional, State-Level Study,” Lancet, Vol. 387, No. 10030, April 30, 2016, pp. 1847–1855.
• Kann, L., T. McManus, W. A. Harris, S. L. Shanklin, K. H. Flint, J. Hawkins, B. Queen, R. Lowry, E. O. Olsen, D. Chyen, L. Whittle, J. Thornton, C. Lim, Y. Yamakawa, N. Brener, and S. Zaza, “Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2015,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 65, No. 6, 2016, pp. 1–174.
• Kann, Laura, Tim McManus, William A. Harris, Shari L. Shanklin, Katherine H. Flint, Barbara Queen, Richard Lowry, David Chyen, Lisa Whittle, Jemekia Thornton, Connie Lim, Denise Bradford, Yoshimi Yamakawa, Michelle Leon, Nancy Brener, and Kathleen A. Ethier, “Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2017,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 67, No. 8, 2018, pp. 1–114.
• Kaplan, M. S., N. Huguet, B. H. McFarland, and J. A. Mandle, “Factors Associated with Suicide by Firearm Among U.S. Older Adult Men,” Psychology of Men and Masculinity, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2012, pp. 65–74.
• Kaplan, M. S., B. H. McFarland, and N. Huguet, “Characteristics of Adult Male and Female Firearm Suicide Decedents: Findings from the National Violent Death Reporting System,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 15, No. 5, 2009, pp. 322–327.
• Kapoor, Reena, Elissa Benedek, Richard J. Bonnie, Tanuja Gandhi, Liza Gold, Seth Judd, and Debra A. Pinals, “APA Resource Document on Risk-Based Gun Removal Laws,” Developments in Mental Health Law, Vol. 37, No. 2, 2018, pp. 6–16.
• Kapusta, Nestor D., Thomas Niederkrotenthaler, Elmar Etzersdorfer, Martin Voracek, Kanita Dervic, Elisabeth Jandl-Jager, and Gernot Sonneck, “Influence of Psychotherapist Density and Antidepressant Sales on Suicide Rates,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Vol. 119, No. 3, 2009, pp. 236–242.
• Kapusta, Nestor D., Martin Posch, Thomas Niederkrotenthaler, Melitta Fischer-Kern, Elmar Etzersdorfer, and Gernot Sonneck, “Availability of Mental Health Service Providers and Suicide Rates in Austria: A Nationwide Study,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 61, No. 12, 2010, pp. 1198–1203.
• Kapusta, N. D., U. S. Tran, I. R. Rockett, D. DeLeo, C. P. Naylor, T. Niederkrotenthaler, M. Voracek, E. Etzersdorfer, and G. Sonneck, “Declining Autopsy Rates and Suicide Misclassification: A Cross-National Analysis of 35 Countries,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 68, No. 10, 2011, pp. 1050–1057.
• Karp, Aaron, Estimating Global Civilian-Held Firearms Numbers, Geneva: Small Arms Survey, June 2018.
• Karras, Elizabeth, Cara M. Stokes, Sara C. Warfield, Shannon K. Barth, and Robert M. Bossarte, “A Randomized Controlled Trial of Public Messaging to Promote Safe Firearm Storage Among U.S. Military Veterans,” Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 241, November 2019, 112205.
• Kawaguchi, Hideaki, and Soichi Koike, “Association Between the Density of Physicians and Suicide Rates in Japan: Nationwide Ecological Study Using a Spatial Bayesian Model,” PLoS One, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2016.
• Keller, Thomas Christoph, “ABC’s and AR-15’s: Arming Arkansas’s Teachers,” Arkansas Law Review, Vol. 67, No. 3, 2014, pp. 687–721.
• Kellermann, Arthur L., and Frederick P. Rivara, “Silencing the Science on Gun Policy,” JAMA, Vol. 309, No. 6, 2013, pp. 549–550.
• Kellermann, A. L., F. P. Rivara, G. Somes, D. T. Reay, J. Francisco, J. G. Banton, J. Prodzinski, C. Fligner, and B. B. Hackman, “Suicide in the Home in Relation to Gun Ownership,” New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 327, No. 7, 1992, pp. 467–472.
• Kelling, G. L., T. Pate, D. Dieckman, and C. E. Brown, The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment, Washington, D.C.: Police Foundation, 1974.
• Kelly, Timothy, Sara Brandspigel, Evan Polzer, and Marian E. Betz, “Firearm Storage Maps: A Pragmatic Approach to Reduce Firearm Suicide During Times of Risk,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 172, No. 5, March 3, 2020, pp. 351–353.
• Kendall, Todd D., and Robert Tamura, “Unmarried Fertility, Crime, and Social Stigma,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 53, No. 1, 2010, pp. 185–221.
• Kennedy, D. M., “Pulling Levers: Chronic Offenders, High-Crime Settings, and a Theory of Prevention,” Valparaiso University Law Review, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1996, pp. 449–484.
• Kennedy, D. M., “Whither Streetwork: The Place of Outreach Workers in Community Violence Prevention,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2011, pp. 1045–1051.
• Kennedy, D. M., A. M. Piehl, and A. A. Braga, “Youth Violence in Boston: Gun Markets, Serious Youth Offenders, and a Use-Reduction Strategy,” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 59, No. 1, 1996, pp. 147–196.
• Kercher, Cassandra, David I. Swedler, Keshia M. Pollack, and Daniel W. Webster, “Homicides of Law Enforcement Officers Responding to Domestic Disturbance Calls,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 19, No. 5, 2013, pp. 331–335.
• Kessler, Ronald C., Howard Birnbaum, Olga Demler, Ian R. H. Falloon, Elizabeth Gagnon, Margaret Guyer, Mary J. Howes, Kenneth S. Kendler, Lizheng Shi, Ellen Walters, and Eric Q. Wu, “The Prevalence and Correlates of Nonaffective Psychosis in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R),” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 58, No. 8, 2005, pp. 668–676.
• Khan, Khalid S., Regina Kunz, Jos Kleijnen, and Gerd Antes, “Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review,” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol. 96, No. 3, 2003, pp. 118–121.
• Khantzian, E. J., “The Self-Medication Hypothesis of Substance Use Disorders: A Reconsideration and Recent Applications,” Harvard Review of Psychiatry, Vol. 4, No. 5, 1997, pp. 231–244.
• Kindy, Kimberly, “FBI to Sharply Expand System for Tracking Fatal Police Shootings,” Washington Post, December 8, 2015.
• King, Aisha, Joseph Simonetti, Elizabeth Bennett, Cassie Simeona, Lauren Stanek, Alison C. Roxby, and Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, “Firearm Storage Practices in Households with Children: A Survey of Community-Based Firearm Safety Event Participants,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 131, February 2019, 105952.
• Kivisto, Aaron J., Katherine L. Kivisto, Erica Gurnell, Peter Phalen, and Bradley Ray, “Adolescent Suicide, Household Firearm Ownership, and the Effects of Child Access Prevention Laws,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 60, No. 9, September 2021, pp. 1096–1104.
• Kivisto, Aaron J., and Peter L. Phalen, “Effects of Risk-Based Firearm Seizure Laws in Connecticut and Indiana on Suicide Rates, 1981–2015,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 69, No. 8, 2018, pp. 855–862.
• Kivisto, Aaron J., Bradley Ray, and Peter L. Phalen, “Firearm Legislation and Fatal Police Shootings in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 107, No. 7, 2017, pp. 1068–1075.
• Klarevas, Louis, Rampage Nation: Securing America from Mass Shootings, Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2016.
• Klarevas, Louis, “Letter to the Editor Re: DiMaggio, C. et al. ‘Changes in US Mass Shooting Deaths Associated with the 1994–2004 Federal Assault Weapons Ban: Analysis of Open-Source Data,’” Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, Vol. 86, No. 5, 2019, pp. 926–928.
• Klarevas, Louis, Andrew Conner, and David Hemenway, “The Effect of Large-Capacity Magazine Bans on High-Fatality Mass Shootings, 1990–2017,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 109, No. 12, 2019, pp. 1754–1761.
• Kleck, Gary, “Crime Control Through the Private Use of Armed Force,” Social Problems, Vol. 35, No. 1, 1988, pp. 1–21.
• Kleck, Gary, Targeting Guns: Firearms and Their Control, New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1997.
• Kleck, Gary, “Degrading Scientific Standards to Get the Defensive Gun Use Estimate Down,” Journal on Firearms and Public Policy, Vol. 11, 1999, pp. 77–138.
• Kleck, Gary, “The Nature and Effectiveness of Owning, Carrying and Using Guns for Self-Protection,” in G. Kleck and D. B. Kates, eds., Armed: New Perspectives on Gun Control, New York: Prometheus Books, 2001.
• Kleck, Gary, “Measures of Gun Ownership Levels for Macro-Level Crime and Violence Research,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2004, pp. 3–36.
• Kleck, Gary, Point Blank: Guns and Violence in America, New Brunswick, N.J.: AldineTransaction, 2009.
• Kleck, Gary, “The Impact of Gun Ownership Rates on Crime Rates: A Methodological Review of the Evidence,” Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2015, pp. 40–48.
• Kleck, Gary, “Large-Capacity Magazines and the Casualty Counts in Mass Shootings: The Plausibility of Linkages,” Justice Research and Policy, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2016, pp. 28–47.
• Kleck, Gary, “Response Errors in Surveys of Defensive Gun Use: A National Internet Survey Experiment,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 64, No. 9, 2018, pp. 1119–1142.
• Kleck, Gary, Did Australia’s Ban on Semiauto Firearms Really Reduce Violence? A Critique of Chapman et al (2016) Study, Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State University, working paper, January 12, 2018a.
• Kleck, Gary, Do Mass Shooters Favor Using High-Capacity Magazines, Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State University, working paper, March 10, 2020.
• Kleck, G., and D. J. Bordua, “The Factual Foundation for Certain Key Assumptions of Gun Control,” Law and Policy, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1983, pp. 271–298.
• Kleck, G., and M. A. DeLone, “Victim Resistance and Offender Weapon Effects in Robbery,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1993, pp. 55–81.
• Kleck, Gary, and Marc G. Gertz, “Armed Resistance to Crime: The Prevalence and Nature of Self-Defense with a Gun,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 86, No. 1, 1995, pp. 150–187.
• Kleck, Gary, Tomislav Kovandzic, and Mark E. Schaffer, Gun Prevalence, Homicide Rates and Causality: A GMM Approach to Endogeneity Bias, London: Centre for Economic Policy Research, Discussion Paper No. 5357, 2005.
• Kleck, G., and E. B. Patterson, “The Impact of Gun Control and Gun Ownership Levels on Violence Rates,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1993, pp. 249–287.
• Klein, Jessie, The Bully Society: School Shootings and the Crisis of Bullying in America’s Schools, New York: New York University Press, 2012.
• Klieve, Helen, Michael Barnes, and Diego De Leo, “Controlling Firearms Use in Australia: Has the 1996 Gun Law Reform Produced the Decrease in Rates of Suicide with This Method?” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 44, No. 4, 2009, pp. 285–292.
• Klieve, H., J. Sveticic, and D. De Leo, “Who Uses Firearms as a Means of Suicide? A Population Study Exploring Firearm Accessibility and Method Choice,” BMC Medicine, Vol. 7, 2009.
• Klinger, D., R. Rosenfeld, D. Isom, and M. Deckard, “Race, Crime, and the Micro-Ecology of Deadly Force,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 15, No. 1, February 2016, pp. 193–222.
• Knicely, John, “One Washington School District Already Has Staff Armed with Guns,” KIRO 7, February 23, 2018.
• Knight, Brian, “State Gun Policy and Cross-State Externalities: Evidence from Crime Gun Tracing,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2013, pp. 200–229.
• Knittel, Christopher R., and Ryan Sandler, “The Welfare Impact of Second-Best Uniform-Pigouvian Taxation: Evidence from Transportation,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2018, pp. 211–242.
• Kochanek, Kenneth D., Sherry L. Murphy, Jiaquan Xu, and Elizabeth Arias, “Deaths: Final Data for 2017,” National Vital Statistics Reports, Vol. 68, No. 9, June 24, 2019.
• Koehler, J. J., “The Influence of Prior Beliefs on Scientific Judgments of Evidence Quality,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 56, No. 1, 1993, pp. 28–55.
• Kolla, B. P., S. S. O’Connor, and T. W. Lineberry, “The Base Rates and Factors Associated with Reported Access to Firearms in Psychiatric Inpatients,” General Hospital Psychiatry, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2011, pp. 191–196.
• Koo, Denise, and Guthrie S. Birkhead, “Prospects and Challenges in Implementing Firearm-Related Injury Surveillance in the United States: Not a Flash in the Pan,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, Supp. 1, 1998, pp. 120–124.
• Kopel, D. B., “Background Checks for Firearms Sales and Loans: Law, History, and Policy,” Harvard Journal on Legislation, Vol. 53, 2016, pp. 303–367.
• Kopel, David B., “Red Flag Laws: Examining Guidelines for State Action,” testimony before the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, Washington, D.C., March 26, 2019.
• Koper, C. S., “Just Enough Police Presence: Reducing Crime and Disorderly Behavior by Optimizing Patrol Time in Crime Hot Spots,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1995, pp. 649–672.
• Koper, Christopher S., “Federal Legislation and Gun Markets: How Much Have Recent Reforms of the Federal Firearms Licensing System Reduced Criminal Gun Suppliers?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2002, pp. 151–178.
• Koper, Christopher. S., Crime Gun Risk Factors: Buyer, Seller, Firearm, and Transaction Characteristics Associated with Gun Trafficking and Criminal Gun Use, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 2003.
• Koper, Christopher S., Updated Assessment of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban: Impacts on Gun Markets and Gun Violence 1994–2003, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 2004.
• Koper, Christopher S., “Crime Gun Risk Factors: Buyer, Seller, Firearm, and Transaction Characteristics Associated with Gun Trafficking and Criminal Gun Use,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2014, pp. 285–315.
• Koper, Christopher S., “Assessing the Potential to Reduce Deaths and Injuries from Mass Shootings Through Restrictions on Assault Weapons and Other High‐Capacity Semiautomatic Firearms,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 147–170.
• Koper, Christopher S., William D. Johnson, Jordan L. Nichols, Ambrozine Ayers, and Natalie Mullins, “Criminal Use of Assault Weapons and High-Capacity Semiautomatic Firearms: An Updated Examination of Local and National Sources,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 95, No. 3, 2018, pp. 313–321.
• Koper, C. S., and E. Mayo-Wilson, “Police Crackdowns on Illegal Gun Carrying: A Systematic Review of Their Impact on Gun Crime,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp. 227–261.
• Koper, C. S., E. Mayo-Wilson, and J. Smith, “Police Strategies to Reduce Illegal Possession and Carrying of Firearms: Effects on Gun Crime,” Campbell Systematic Reviews, Vol. 11, 2012.
• Koper, Christopher S., and Jeffrey A. Roth, “The Impact of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapon Ban on Gun Violence Outcomes: An Assessment of Multiple Outcome Measures and Some Lessons for Policy Evaluation,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2001, pp. 33–74.
• Koper, Christopher S., and Jeffrey A. Roth, “Impact of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapons Ban on Gun Markets: An Assessment of Short-Term Primary and Secondary Market Effects,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 18, No. 3, 2002, pp. 239–266.
• Koper, C. S., D. J. Woods, and B. E. Kubu, “Gun Violence Prevention Practices Among Local Police in the United States,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, Vol. 36, No. 3, 2013, pp. 577–603.
• Koseff, Alexei, “See Where California Is Taking Guns with Restraining Orders,” Sacramento Bee, August 1, 2017.
• Kovandzic, Tomislav V., and Thomas B. Marvell, “Right-to-Carry Concealed Handguns and Violent Crime: Crime Control Through Gun Control?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2003, pp. 363–396.
• Kovandzic, T. V., T. B. Marvell, and L. M. Vieraitis, “The Impact of ‘Shall-Issue’ Concealed Handgun Laws on Violent Crime Rates—Evidence from Panel Data for Large Urban Cities,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2005, pp. 292–323.
• Kovandzic, Tomislav, Mark E. Schaffer, and Gary Kleck, “Estimating the Causal Effect of Gun Prevalence on Homicide Rates: A Local Average Treatment Effect Approach,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2013, pp. 477–541.
• Kposowa, A. J., “Association of Suicide Rates, Gun Ownership, Conservatism and Individual Suicide Risk,” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 48, No. 9, 2013, pp. 1467–1479.
• Kposowa, A., D. Hamilton, and K. Wang, “Impact of Firearm Availability and Gun Regulation on State Suicide Rates,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 46, No. 6, 2016, pp. 678–696.
• Kremer, Michael, and Jack Willis, “Guns, Latrines, and Land Reform: Dynamic Pigouvian Taxation,” American Economic Review, Vol. 106, No. 5, 2016, pp. 83–88.
• Krouse, W. J., Gun Control: Statutory Disclosure Limitations on ATF Firearms Trace Data and Multiple Handgun Sales Reports, Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 7–5700, 2009.
• Krouse, William J., and Daniel J. Richardson, Mass Murder with Firearms: Incidents and Victims, 1999–2013, Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, R44126, 2015.
• Kubrin, Charis E., and Tim Wadsworth, “Explaining Suicide Among Blacks and Whites: How Socioeconomic Factors and Gun Availability Affect Race-Specific Suicide Rates,” Social Science Quarterly, Vol. 90, No. 5, 2009, pp. 1203–1227.
• Kung, H. C., J. L. Pearson, and X. Liu, “Risk Factors for Male and Female Suicide Decedents Ages 15–64 in the United States—Results from the 1993 National Mortality Followback Survey,” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 38, No. 8, 2003, pp. 419–426.
• Kung, H. C., J. L. Pearson, and R. Wei, “Substance Use, Firearm Availability, Depressive Symptoms, and Mental Health Service Utilization Among White and African American Suicide Decedents Aged 15 to 64 Years,” Annals of Epidemiology, Vol. 15, No. 8, 2005, pp. 614–621.
• Kurtzleben, Danielle, “Fact Check: Are Gun-Makers ‘Totally Free of Liability for Their Behavior’?” NPR, October 6, 2015.
• Kwon, Roy, and Joseph F. Cabrera, “Income Inequality and Mass Shootings in the United States,” BMC Public Health, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2019a, article 1147.
• Kwon, Roy, and Joseph F. Cabrera, “Social Integration and Mass Shootings in US Counties,” Journal of Crime and Justice, Vol. 42, No. 2, 2019b, pp. 121–139.
• Kwon, Roy, and Joseph F. Cabrera, “Socioeconomic Factors and Mass Shootings in the United States,” Critical Public Health, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2019c, pp. 138–145.
• La Valle, James M., “Rebuilding at Gunpoint: A City-Level Re-Estimation of the Brady Law and RTC Laws in the Wake of Hurricane Katrina,” Criminal Justice Policy Review, Vol. 18, No. 4, 2007, pp. 451–465.
• La Valle, James M., “Re-Estimating Gun-Policy Effects According to a National Science Academy Report: Were Previous Reports of Failure Premature?” Journal of Crime and Justice, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2010, pp. 71–95.
• La Valle, James M., “‘Gun Control’ vs. ‘Self-Protection’: A Case Against the Ideological Divide,” Justice Policy Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2013, pp. 1–26.
• La Valle, James M., and Thomas C. Glover, “Revisiting Licensed Handgun Carrying: Personal Protection or Interpersonal Liability?” American Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2012, pp. 580–601.
• LaFree, G., and C. Birbeck, Controlling New Mexico Juveniles’ Possession of Firearms, Albuquerque, N.M.: New Mexico Criminal Justice Statistical Analysis Center, Working Paper 27, 1998.
• Lang, Matthew, “The Impact of Mental Health Insurance Laws on State Suicide Rates,” Health Economics, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2013, pp. 73–88.
• Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Jennifer, “Top 10 Greatest ‘Hits’: Important Findings and Future Directions for Intimate Partner Violence Research,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2005, pp. 108–118.
• Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Jennifer, Russell E. Palarea, Jennifer Cohen, and Martin L. Rohling, “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do: Unwanted Pursuit Behaviors Following the Dissolution of a Romantic Relationship,” in K. E. Davis, I. H. Frieze, and R. D. Maiuro, eds., Stalking: Perspectives on Victims and Perpetrators, New York: Springer, 2002, pp. 212–236.
• Langman, Peter, “Different Types of Role Model Influence and Fame Seeking Among Mass Killers and Copycat Offenders,” American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 62, No. 2, 2018, pp. 210–228.
• Langton, L., Firearms Stolen During Household Burglaries and Other Property Crimes, 2005–2010, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 239436, 2012.
• Lankford, Adam, “A Comparative Analysis of Suicide Terrorists and Rampage, Workplace, and School Shooters in the United States from 1990 to 2010,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013, pp. 255–274.
• Lankford, Adam, “Mass Murderers in the United States: Predictors of Offender Deaths,” Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, Vol. 26, No. 5, 2015, pp. 586–600.
• Lankford, Adam, and James Silver, “Why Have Public Mass Shootings Become More Deadly? Assessing How Perpetrators’ Motives and Methods Have Changed over Time,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 37–60.
• Laqueur, Hannah S., and Garen J. Wintemute, “Identifying High‐Risk Firearm Owners to Prevent Mass Violence,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 109–127.
• Lasley, James R., Using Traffic Barriers to “Design Out” Crime: A Program Evaluation of LAPD’s Operation Cul-de-Sac, Fullerton, Calif.: California State University, Division of Political Science and Criminal Justice, 1996.
• Leask, Anna, “Raurimu 20 Years On: The Madman, the Massacre and the Memories,” New Zealand Herald, February 4, 2017.
• Lee, Wang-Sheng, and Sandy Suardi, “The Australian Firearms Buyback and Its Effect on Gun Deaths,” Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol. 28, No. 1, 2010, pp. 65–79.
• Lee, Y. Y., “Gentrification and Crime: Identification Using the 1994 Northridge Earthquake in Los Angeles,” Journal of Urban Affairs, Vol. 32, No. 5, 2010, pp. 549–577.
• Lehnen, R., and W. Skogan, The National Crime Survey: Working Papers, Vol. 2: Methodological Studies, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1984.
• Leigh, Andrew, and Christine Neill, “Do Gun Buybacks Save Lives? Evidence from Panel Data,” American Law and Economics Review, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2010, pp. 509–557.
• Levine, Phillip B., and Robin McKnight, “Firearms and Accidental Deaths: Evidence from the Aftermath of the Sandy Hook School Shooting,” Science, Vol. 358, No. 6368, 2017, pp. 1324–1328.
• Levine, Phillip B., and Robin McKnight, Not All School Shootings Are the Same and the Differences Matter, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 26728, February 2020.
• Lewiecki, E. M., and S. A. Miller, “Suicide, Guns, and Public Policy,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 103, No. 1, 2013, pp. 27–31.
• Lexington, “Why the NRA Keeps Talking About Mental Illness, Rather Than Guns,” Economist, March 13, 2013.
• Levine, Phillip B., and Robin McKnight, Not All School Shootings Are the Same and the Differences Matter, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 26728, February 2020.
• Li, Guohua, Susan P. Baker, Carla DiScala, Carolyn Fowler, Jean Ling, and Gabor D. Kelen, “Factors Associated with the Intent of Firearm-Related Injuries in Pediatric Trauma Patients,” Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 11, 1996, pp. 1160–1165.
• Li, Shanjun, Joshua Linn, and Erich Muehlegger, “Gasoline Taxes and Consumer Behavior,” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2014, pp. 302–342.
• Li, Z., A. Page, G. Martin, and R. Taylor, “Attributable Risk of Psychiatric and Socio-Economic Factors for Suicide from Individual-Level, Population-Based Studies: A Systematic Review,” Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 72, No. 4, 2011, pp. 608–616.
• Linden, Ariel, and Paul R. Yarnold, “The Australian Gun Buyback Program and Rate of Suicide by Firearm,” Optimal Data Analysis, Vol. 7, March 25, 2018, pp. 28–35.
• Lipari, Rachel N., and Eunice Park-Lee, Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, Rockville, Md.: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, August 2019.
• Liu, E. C., E. Bagalman, V. S. Chu, and C. S. Redhead, Submission of Mental Health Records to the NICS and the HIPAA Privacy Rule, Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, R43040, 2013.
• Liu, Gina, and Douglas J. Wiebe, “A Time-Series Analysis of Firearm Purchasing After Mass Shooting Events in the United States,” JAMA Network Open, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2019.
• Loeber, R., and R. Stallings, “Modeling the Impact of Interventions on Local Indicators of Offending, Victimization, and Incarceration,” in R. Loeber and D. P. Farrington, eds., Young Homicide Offenders and Victims: Risk Factors, Prediction, and Prevention from Childhood, New York: Springer, 2011, pp. 137–152.
• Loftin, Colin, and Ellen J. MacKenzie, “Building National Estimates of Violent Victimization,” paper presented at the National Research Council Symposium on the Understanding and Control of Violent Behavior, Destin, Fla., April 1–6, 1990.
• Loftin, Colin, David McDowall, and Matthew D. Fetzer, “A Comparison of SHR and Vital Statistics Homicide Estimates for U.S. Cities,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2008, pp. 4–17.
• Loftin, C., D. McDowall, B. Wiersema, and T. J. Cottey, “Effects of Restrictive Licensing of Handguns on Homicide and Suicide in the District of Columbia,” New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 325, No. 23, 1991, pp. 1615–1620.
• Logan, J., Holly A. Hill, Michele Lynberg Black, Alex E. Crosby, Debra L. Karch, Jamar D. Barnes, and Keri M. Lubell, “Characteristics of Perpetrators in Homicide-Followed-by-Suicide Incidents: National Violent Death Reporting System—17 U.S. States, 2003–2005,” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 168, No. 9, 2008, pp. 1056–1064.
• Longo, Daniel, Lock and Load: After Recent Sales Surge, Demand Normalizes as Fears of Gun Control Subside, Los Angeles, Calif., IBISWorld Industry Report 33299a: Guns and Ammunition Manufacturing in the U.S., June 2017.
• Lott, John R., Jr., “The Concealed-Handgun Debate,” Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1, January 1998a, pp. 221–243.
• Lott, John R., Jr., More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun-Control Laws, 1st ed., Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1998b.
• Lott, John R., Jr., More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun-Control Laws, 2nd ed., Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
• Lott, John R., Jr., The Bias Against Guns: Why Almost Everything You’ve Heard About Gun Control Is Wrong, Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 2003.
• Lott, John R., Jr., More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun-Control Laws, 3rd ed., Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 2010.
• Lott, John R., Jr., “The FBI’s Misinterpretation of the Change in Mass Public Shootings,” ACJS Today, Vol. 40, No. 2, 2015, pp. 18–29.
• Lott, John R., Jr., Concealed Carry Permit Holders Across the United States: 2018, Alexandria, Va.: Crime Prevention Research Center, August 14, 2018.
• Lott, John R., Jr., “Schools That Allow Teachers to Carry Guns Are Extremely Safe: Data on the Rate of Shootings and Accidents in Schools That Allow Teachers to Carry,” Alexandria, Va.: Crime Prevention Research Center, April 25, 2019.
• Lott, John R., Jr., and William M. Landes, Multiple Victim Public Shootings, Bombings, and Right-to-Carry Concealed Handgun Laws: Contrasting Private and Public Law Enforcement, Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Law School, John M. Olin Law and Economics Working Paper No. 73, 1999.
• Lott, John R., Jr., and William Landes, “Multiple Victim Public Shootings,” 2000 (unpublished). As of June 29, 2017: http://www.shack.co.nz/pistoltaupo/SSRN_ID272929_code010610560.pdf
• Lott, John R., Jr., Carlisle E. Moody, and John E. Whitley, “Re: ‘What Do We Know About the Association Between Firearm Legislation and Firearm-Related Injuries?’” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 184, No. 1, 2016, pp. 81–82.
• Lott, John R., Jr., and D. B. Mustard, “Crime, Deterrence, and Right-to-Carry Concealed Handguns,” Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1997, pp. 1–68.
• Lott, John R., Florenz Plassmann, and John E. Whitley, “Confirming More Guns, Less Crime,” December 9, 2002.
• Lott, John R., Jr., and John E. Whitley, “Safe-Storage Gun Laws: Accidental Deaths, Suicides, and Crime,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. 2, 2001, pp. 659–689.
• Lott, John R., Jr., and John E. Whitley, “Measurement Error in County-Level UCR Data,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 19, No. 2, June 2003, pp. 185–198.
• Lott, John R., Jr., and John E. Whitley, “Abortion and Crime: Unwanted Children and Out-of-Wedlock Births,” Economic Inquiry, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007, pp. 304–324.
• Lott, John R., Jr., John E. Whitley, and Rebekah C. Riley, Concealed Carry Permit Holders Across the United States, Crime Prevention Research Center, 2016.
• Lowe, Sarah R., and Sandro Galea, “The Mental Health Consequences of Mass Shootings,” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2017, pp. 62–82.
• Lubin, G., N. Werbeloff, D. Halperin, M. Shmushkevitch, M. Weiser, and H. Y. Knobler, “Decrease in Suicide Rates After a Change of Policy Reducing Access to Firearms in Adolescents: A Naturalistic Epidemiological Study,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 40, No. 5, 2010, pp. 421–424.
• Luca, Michael, Deepak Malhotra, and Christopher Poliquin, The Impact of Mass Shootings on Gun Policy, working paper, Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School, 2016.
• Luca, Michael, Deepak Malhotra, and Christopher Poliquin, “Handgun Waiting Periods Reduce Gun Deaths,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 114, No. 46, 2017, pp. 12162–12165.
• Luca, Michael, Deepak Malhotra, and Christopher Poliquin, “The Impact of Mass Shootings on Gun Policy,” Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 181, January 2020.
• Ludwig, Jens, “Concealed-Gun-Carrying Laws and Violent Crime: Evidence from State Panel Data,” International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1998, pp. 239–254.
• Ludwig, Jens, “Gun Self-Defense and Deterrence,” Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 27, 2000, pp. 363–417.
• Ludwig, J., and P. J. Cook, “Homicide and Suicide Rates Associated with Implementation of the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act,” JAMA, Vol. 284, No. 5, 2000, pp. 585–591.
• Lum, Hillary D., Hanna K. Flaten, and Marian E. Betz, “Gun Access and Safety Practices Among Older Adults,” Current Gerontology and Geriatrics Research, Vol. 2016, 2016, pp. 1–5.
• Luo, Michael, and Mike McIntire, “Children and Guns: The Hidden Toll,” New York Times, September 28, 2013.
• Luoma, Jason B., Catherine E. Martin, and Jane L. Pearson, “Contact with Mental Health and Primary Care Providers Before Suicide: A Review of the Evidence,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 159, No. 6, 2002, pp. 909–916.
• Lyons, Vivian H., Miriam J. Haviland, Deborah Azrael, Avanti Adhia, M. Alex Bellenger, Alice Ellyson, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, and Frederick P. Rivara, “Firearm Purchasing and Storage During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2021, pp. 87–92.
• Lyons, Vivian H., Frederick P. Rivara, Alice Ning-Xue Yan, Cara Currier, Erin Ballsmith, Kevin P. Haggerty, Lauren Whiteside, Anthony S. Floyd, Anjum Hajat, and Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, “Firearm-Related Behaviors Following Firearm Injury: Changes in Ownership, Carrying and Storage,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol. 42, No. 4, August 2019, pp. 658–673.
• MacDonald, J., D. Golinelli, R. J. Stokes, and R. Bluthenthal, “The Effect of Business Improvement Districts on the Incidence of Violent Crimes,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 16, No. 5, 2010, pp. 327–332.
• MacDonald, J., R. J. Stokes, B. Grunwald, and R. Bluthenthal, “The Privatization of Public Safety in Urban Neighborhoods: Do Business Improvement Districts Reduce Violent Crime Among Adolescents?” Law and Society Review, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2013, pp. 621–652.
• MacKinnon, James G., and Matthew D. Webb, “Wild Bootstrap Inference for Wildly Different Cluster Sizes,” Journal of Applied Econometrics, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2017, pp. 233–254.
• Madensen, T. D., and J. E. Eck, “Violence in Bars: Exploring the Impact of Place Manager Decision-Making,” Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2008, pp. 111–125.
• Maguire, E. R., C. W. Telep, and T. Abt, “The Effectiveness of Street Outreach Worker Programs for Reducing Violence: A Systematic Review,” Campbell Collaboration, 2018.
• Maguire, E. R., C. D. Uchida, and K. D. Hassell, “Problem-Oriented Policing in Colorado Springs: A Content Analysis of 753 Cases,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 61, No. 1, 2015, pp. 71–95.
• Maltz, M. D., and J. Targonski, “A Note on the Use of County-Level UCR Data," Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 18, No. 2, 2002, pp. 297–318.
• Manning, Willard, “Comment: The Impact of Concealed-Carry Laws,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 331–341.
• Manski, Charles F., and John V. Pepper, How Do Right-to-Carry Laws Affect Crime Rates? Coping with Ambiguity Using Bounded-Variation Assumptions, Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau for Economic Research, NBER Working Paper 21701, November 2015.
• Manski, Charles F., and John V. Pepper, “How Do Right-to-Carry Laws Affect Crime Rates? Coping with Ambiguity Using Bounded-Variation Assumptions,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 100, No. 2, 2018, pp. 232–244.
• Mares, D., and E. Blackburn, “Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Acoustic Gunshot Location System in St. Louis, MO,” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2012, pp. 26–42.
• Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Commission, Initial Report Submitted to the Governor, Speaker of the House of Representatives and Senate President, January 2, 2019.
• Marron, Donald B., and Adele C. Morris, How Should Governments Use Revenue from Corrective Taxes? Washington, D.C.: Tax Policy Center, Urban Institute and Brookings Institution, January 2016.
• Martin, Robert A., and Richard L. Legault, “Systematic Measurement Error with State-Level Crime Data: Evidence from the ‘More Guns, Less Crime’ Debate,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 42, No. 2, May 2005, pp. 187–210.
• Marvell, Thomas B., “The Impact of Banning Juvenile Gun Possession,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. S2, 2001, pp. 691–713.
• Marylanders to Prevent Gun Violence, “Maryland Safe Storage Map,” webpage, undated. As of December 7, 2021: https://mdpgv.org/safestoragemap/
• Mass Shooting Tracker, homepage, undated. As of June 3, 2020: https://www.massshootingtracker.org
• Masters, Kate, “Fear of Other People Is Now the Primary Motivation for American Gun Ownership, a Landmark Survey Finds,” The Trace, September 19, 2016.
• Matejkowski, J., J. Fairfax-Columbo, S. W. Cullen, S. C. Marcus, and P. L. Solomon, “Exploring the Potential of Stricter Gun Restrictions for People with Serious Mental Illness to Reduce Homicide in the United States,” Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2014, pp. 362–369.
• Matthay, Ellicott C., Jessica Galin, Kara E. Rudolph, Kriszta Farkas, Garen J. Wintemute, and Jennifer Ahern, “In-State and Interstate Associations Between Gun Shows and Firearm Deaths and Injuries: A Quasi-Experimental Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 167, No. 12, 2017, pp. 837–844.
• Mauri, Amanda I., Julia A. Wolfson, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Firearm Storage Practices and Risk Perceptions,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 57, No. 6, December 2019, pp. 830–835.
• Maxson, C. L., K. M. Hennigan, and D. C. Sloane, “‘It's Getting Crazy Out There’: Can a Civil Gang Injunction Change a Community?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2005, pp. 577–605.
• Mayors Against Illegal Guns, “Access Denied: How the Gun Lobby Is Depriving Police, Policy Makers, and the Public of the Data We Need to Prevent Gun Violence,” Everytown for Gun Safety Support Fund, 2013.
• Mazerolle, L. G., C. Watkins, D. Rogan, and J. Frank, “Using Gunshot Detection Systems in Police Departments: The Impact on Police Response Times and Officer Workloads,” Police Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1998, pp. 21–49.
• McCarthy, John F., Frederic C. Blow, Rosalinda V. Ignacio, Mark A. Ilgen, Karen L. Austin, and Marcia Valenstein, “Suicide Among Patients in the Veterans Affairs Health System: Rural-Urban Differences in Rates, Risks, and Methods,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 102, No. S1, March 2012, pp. S111–S117.
• McClellan, Chandler, and Erdal Tekin, “Stand Your Ground Laws, Homicides, and Injuries,” Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 52, No. 3, 2017, pp. 621–653.
• McClelland, Robert, “New Gun and Ammo Taxes Sound Like Promising Ways to Reduce Gun Violence. But There Are Problems,” Washington, D.C.: Tax Policy Center, Urban Institute and Brookings Institution, May 24, 2018.
• McClelland, Robert, and Sarah Gault, The Synthetic Control Method as a Tool to Understand State Policy, Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 2017.
• McDonald, J. F., “An Economic Analysis of Guns, Crime, and Gun Control,” Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1999, pp. 11–19.
• McDowall, D., C. Loftin, and S. Presser, “Measuring Civilian Defensive Firearm Use: A Methodological Experiment,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2000, pp. 1–19.
• McDowall, D., C. Loftin, and B. Wiersema, “Estimates of the Frequency of Firearm Self Defense from the National Crime Victimization Survey,” Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York, School of Criminal Justice, Violence Research Group Discussion Paper 20, 1998 (unpublished).
• McDowall, D., and B. Wiersema, “The Incidence of Defensive Firearm Use by U.S. Crime Victims, 1987 Through 1990,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 84, No. 12, 1994, pp. 1982–1984.
• McFarlane, J., J. C. Campbell, S. Wilt, C. Sachs, Y. Ulrich, and X. Xu, “Stalking and Intimate Partner Femicide,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 3, 1999, pp. 300–316.
• McGarrell, E. F., “Research Foundations and Implications for Practice,” Department of Justice Journal of Federal Law and Practice, Vol. 66, No. 6, 2018, pp. 3–12.
• McGarrell, E. F., N. Corsaro, N. K. Hipple, and T. S. Bynum, “Project Safe Neighborhoods and Violent Crime Trends in US Cities: Assessing Violent Crime Impact,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2010, pp. 165–190.
• McGee, K. S., T. Coyne-Beasley, and R. M. Johnson, “Review of Evaluations of Educational Approaches to Promote Safe Storage of Firearms,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2003, pp. 108–111.
• McGinty, Emma E., Alene Kennedy-Hendricks, Seema Choksy, and Colleen L. Barry, “Trends in News Media Coverage of Mental Illness in the United States: 1995–2014,” Health Affairs, Vol. 35, No. 6, 2016, pp. 1121–1129.
• McGinty, E. E., D. W. Webster, M. Jarlenski, and C. L. Barry, “News Media Framing of Serious Mental Illness and Gun Violence in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 104, No. 3, 2014, pp. 406–413.
• McPhedran, Samara, “A Systematic Review of Quantitative Evidence About the Impacts of Australian Legislative Reform on Firearm Homicide,” Aggression and Violent Behavior, Vol. 28, 2016, pp. 64–72.
• McPhedran, Samara, “An Evaluation of the Impacts of Changing Firearms Legislation on Australian Female Firearm Homicide Victimization Rates,” Violence Against Women, Vol. 24, No. 7, May 2018, pp. 798–815.
• McPhedran, Samara, and Jeanine Baker, “Mass Shootings in Australia and New Zealand: A Descriptive Study of Incidence,” Justice Policy Journal, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2011.
• McPhedran, Samara, and Jeanine Baker, “Lethal and Non-Lethal Violence Against Women in Australia: Measurement Challenges, Conceptual Frameworks, and Limitations in Knowledge,” Violence Against Women, Vol. 18, No. 8, 2012, pp. 958–972.
• Mercy, James A., Robin Ikeda, and Kenneth E. Powell, “Firearm-Related Injury Surveillance: An Overview of Progress and the Challenges Ahead,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, Supp. 1, 1998, pp. 6–16.
• Metzl, J. M., and K. T. MacLeish, “Mental Illness, Mass Shootings, and the Politics of American Firearms,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 105, No. 2, 2015, pp. 240–249.
• Miletich, Steve, “‘Extreme Risk’: Seattle Police Have Seized 43 Guns from People Deemed to Be a Danger Under Year-Old Law,” Seattle Times, May 24, 2018.
• Mill, John Stuart, A System of Logic, London: Parker, 1843.
• Miller, M., D. Azrael, and C. Barber, “Suicide Mortality in the United States: The Importance of Attending to Method in Understanding Population-Level Disparities in the Burden of Suicide,” Annual Review of Public Health, Vol. 33, 2012, pp. 393–408.
• Miller, M., D. Azrael, and D. Hemenway, “Household Firearm Ownership and Suicide Rates in the United States,” Epidemiology, Vol. 13, No. 5, 2002, pp. 517–524.
• Miller, M., D. Azrael, and D. Hemenway, “The Epidemiology of Case Fatality Rates for Suicide in the Northeast,” Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 43, No. 6, 2004, pp. 723–730.
• Miller, M., D. Azrael, D. Hemenway, and M. Vriniotis, “Firearm Storage Practices and Rates of Unintentional Firearm Deaths in the United States,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005, pp. 661–667.
• Miller, M., D. Azrael, L. Hepburn, D. Hemenway, and S. J. Lippmann, “The Association Between Changes in Household Firearm Ownership and Rates of Suicide in the United States, 1981–2002,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2006, pp. 178–182.
• Miller, M., C. Barber, D. Azrael, D. Hemenway, and B. E. Molnar, “Recent Psychopathology, Suicidal Thoughts and Suicide Attempts in Households With and Without Firearms: Findings from the National Comorbidity Study Replication,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2009, pp. 183–187.
• Miller, M., C. Barber, R. A. White, and D. Azrael, “Firearms and Suicide in the United States: Is Risk Independent of Underlying Suicidal Behavior?” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 178, No. 6, 2013, pp. 946–955.
• Miller, M., and D. Hemenway, “The Relationship Between Firearms and Suicide: A Review of the Literature,” Aggression and Violent Behavior, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1999, pp. 59–75.
• Miller, M., D. Hemenway, and D. Azrael, “Firearms and Suicide in the Northeast,” Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, Vol. 57, No. 3, 2004, pp. 626–632.
• Miller, Matthew, Katherine Hempstead, Tuan Nguyen, Catherine Barber, Sarah Rosenberg-Wohl, and Deborah Azrael, “Method Choice in Nonfatal Self-Harm as a Predictor of Subsequent Episodes of Self-Harm and Suicide: Implications for Clinical Practice,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 103, No. 6, 2013a, pp. e61–e68.
• Miller, M., L. Hepburn, and D. Azrael, “Firearm Acquisition Without Background Checks: Results of a National Survey,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 166, 2017, pp. 233–239.
• Miller, Matthew, Carmel Salhi, Catherine Barber, Deborah Azrael, Elizabeth Beatriz, John Berrigan, Sara Brandspigel, Marian E. Betz, and Carol Runyan, “Changes in Firearm and Medication Storage Practices in Homes of Youths at Risk for Suicide: Results of the SAFETY Study, a Clustered, Emergency Department–Based, Multisite, Stepped-Wedge Trial,” Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 76, No. 2, August 2020, pp. 194–205.
• Miller, M., S. A. Swanson, and D. Azrael, “Are We Missing Something Pertinent? A Bias Analysis of Unmeasured Confounding in the Firearm-Suicide Literature,” Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016, pp. 62–69.
• Miller, M., M. Warren, D. Hemenway, and D. Azrael, “Firearms and Suicide in U.S. Cities,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 21, No. E1, 2015, pp. E116–E119.
• Miller, Matthew, W. Zhang, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, and Deborah Azrael, “Child Access Prevention Laws and Firearm Storage: Results from a National Survey,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, forthcoming.
• Milne, John S., Stephen W. Hargarten, Arthur L. Kellermann, and Garen J. Wintemute, “Effect of Current Federal Regulations on Handgun Safety Features,” Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2003, pp. 1–9.
• Mitchell, R. J., “Frequency Versus Duration of Police Patrol Visits for Reducing Crime in Hot Spots: Non-Experimental Findings from the Sacramento Hot Spots Experiment,” Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based Policing, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2017, pp. 22–37.
• Molina, J. A., and R. Duarte, “Risk Determinants of Suicide Attempts Among Adolescents,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 65, No. 2, 2006, pp. 407–434.
• Monroe, Jeffrey D., Homicide and Gun Control: The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act and Homicide Rates, New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2008.
• Monuteaux, M. C., D. Azrael, and M. Miller, “Association of Increased Safe Household Firearm Storage with Firearm Suicide and Unintentional Death Among US Youths,” JAMA Pediatrics, Vol. 173, No. 7, 2019, pp. 657–662.
• Monuteaux, M. C., L. K. Lee, D. Hemenway, R. Mannix, and E. W. Fleegler, “Firearm Ownership and Violent Crime in the U.S.: An Ecologic Study,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 49, No. 2, 2015, pp. 207–214.
• Moody, Carlisle E., “Testing for the Effects of Concealed Weapons Laws: Specification Errors and Robustness,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. S2, 2001, pp. 799–813.
• Moody, Carlisle E., and Thomas B. Marvell, “The Debate on Shall-Issue Laws,” Econ Journal Watch, Vol. 5, No. 3, 2008, pp. 269–293.
• Moody, Carlisle E., and Thomas B. Marvell, “The Debate on Shall-Issue Laws, Continued,” Econ Journal Watch, Vol. 6, No. 2, 2009, pp. 203–217.
• Moody, Carlisle E., and Thomas B. Marvell, “On the Choice of Control Variables in the Crime Equation,” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 72, No. 5, 2010, pp. 696–715.
• Moody, Carlisle E., and Thomas B. Marvell, “The Impact of Right-to-Carry Laws: A Critique of the 2014 Version of Aneja, Donohue, and Zhang,” Econ Journal Watch, Vol. 15, No. 1, January 2018a, pp. 51–66.
• Moody, Carlisle E., and Thomas B. Marvell, “Clustering and Standard Error Bias in Fixed Effects Panel Data Regressions,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology, May 2018b, pp. 1–23.
• Moody, Carlisle E., and Thomas B. Marvell, “Clustering and Standard Error Bias in Fixed Effects Panel Data Regressions,” Journal ofQuantitative Criminology, Vol. 36, No. 4, June 2020, pp. 347–369.
• Moody, Carlisle E., Thomas B. Marvell, Paul R. Zimmerman, and Fasil Alemante, “The Impact of Right-to-Carry Laws on Crime: An Exercise in Replication,” Review of Economics and Finance, Vol. 4, 2014, pp. 33–43.
• Moreno-Küstner, Berta, Carlos Martín, and Loly Pastor, “Prevalence of Psychotic Disorders and Its Association with Methodological Issues: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses,” PLoS One, Vol. 13, No. 4, 2018.
• Morgan, Erin R., Anthony Gomez, Frederick P. Rivara, and Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, “Firearm Storage and Adult Alcohol Misuse Among Washington State Households with Children,” JAMA Pediatrics, Vol. 173, No. 1, January 2019a, pp. 37–43.
• Morgan, Erin R., Anthony Gomez, Frederick P. Rivara, and Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, “Household Firearm Ownership and Storage, Suicide Risk Factors, and Memory Loss Among Older Adults: Results from a Statewide Survey,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 171, No. 3, August 6, 2019b, pp. 220–222.
• Morgan, Erin Renee, Anthony Gomez, and Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, “Firearm Ownership, Storage Practices, and Suicide Risk Factors in Washington State, 2013–2016,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 108, No. 7, July 2018, pp. 882–888.
• Morral, Andrew R., Terry L. Schell, and Margaret Tankard, The Magnitude and Sources of Disagreement Among Gun Policy Experts, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, RR-2088/1-RC, 2018. As of March 2, 2018: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2088z1.html
• Moskos, Michelle A., Lenora Olson, Sarah R. Halbern, and Doug Gray, “Utah Youth Suicide Study: Barriers to Mental Health Treatment for Adolescents,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 37, No. 2, 2007, pp. 179–186.
• Moyer, R., J. M. MacDonald, G. Ridgeway, and C. C. Branas, “Effect of Remediating Blighted Vacant Land on Shootings: A Citywide Cluster Randomized Trial,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 109, No. 1, 2019, pp. 140–144.
• Mueller, Kristen L., Sonya Naganathan, and Richard T. Griffey, “Counseling on Access to Lethal Means-Emergency Department (CALM-ED): A Quality Improvement Program for Firearm Injury Prevention,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 21, No. 5, August 20, 2020, pp. 1123–1130.
• Munasib, Abdul, Genti Kostandini, and Jeffrey L. Jordan, “Impact of the Stand Your Ground Law on Gun Deaths: Evidence of a Rural Urban Dichotomy,” European Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2018, pp. 527–554.
• Murder Accountability Project, “Clearance Rates: Uniform Crime Report for Homicides: 1965–2018,” 2019. As of January 24, 2020: http://www.murderdata.org/p/blog-page.html
• Murphy v. Guerrero, 2016 U.S. Dist. Northern Mariana Islands, 9th Circuit, September 28, 2016.
• Mustard, David B., “The Impact of Gun Laws on Police Deaths,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. S2, 2001, pp. 635–657.
• Musu, Lauren, Anlan Zhang, Ke Wang, Jizhi Zhang, and Barbara A. Oudekerk, Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2018, Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2019-047, NCJ 252571, April 2019.
• Nagin, D. S., “Deterrence in the Twenty-First Century,” Crime and Justice, Vol. 42, No. 1, 2013, pp. 199–263.
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2018.
• National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, “Resource Guide: Uniform Crime Reporting Program,” webpage, undated. As of October 20, 2019: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/content/NACJD/guides/ucr.html
• National Cancer Institute, The Role of the Media in Promoting and Reducing Tobacco Use, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, No. 07–6242, 2008.
• National Conference of State Legislatures, Fiscal Affairs Program, Tax Policy Handbook for State Legislators, 3rd ed., Washington, D.C., February 2010.
• National Institute of Mental Health, “NIMH Awards Funding for Research on Preventing Firearm Injury and Mortality,” webpage, October 23, 2020. As of December 7, 2021: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/news/research-highlights/2020/nimh-awards-funding-for-research-on-preventing-firearm-injury-and-mortality
• National Network for Safe Communities, Group Violence Intervention: An Implementation Guide, Washington, D.C.: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2016.
• National Research Council, Understanding and Preventing Violence, A. J. Reiss and J. Roth, eds., Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 1993.
• National Research Council, Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004.
• National Research Council, Fairness and Effectiveness in Policing: The Evidence, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2004a.
• National Research Council, Estimating the Incidence of Rape and Sexual Assault, Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2014.
• National Rifle Association, Institute for Legislative Action, “State Gun Laws,” webpage, undated. As of January 11, 2018: https://www.nraila.org/gun-laws/state-gun-laws
• National Rifle Association, Institute for Legislative Action, “Bloomberg Course Continues Bloomberging Rights Away,” May 24, 2019a.
• National Rifle Association, Institute for Legislative Action, “New Zealand Experience Further Proves Registration Facilitates Confiscations,” July 8, 2019b.
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, “Modern Sporting Rifle: Introduction,” webpage, undated. As of October 14, 2019: https://www.nssf.org/msr/
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, "Gun Storage for Your Lifestyle," fact sheet, undated-a. As of December 6, 2021: https://projectchildsafe.org/wp-content/uploads/files/PCS_SafeStorage_19.pdf
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, Firearms Production in the United States, Newtown, Conn., 2015.
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, “Project ChildSafe,” webpage, 2016. As of January 10, 2022: http://www.projectchildsafe.org/
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, Firearms and Ammunition Industry Economic Impact Report, Newtown, Conn., 2017.
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, Firearms and Ammunition Industry Economic Impact Report, Newtown, Conn., 2019.
• National Shooting Sports Foundation, A Guide to Responsible Gun Ownership, Safe Handling and Secure Storage, Newtown, Conn.: Project ChildSafe, 2020.
• Nelson, Charles M., Economic Implications of Land Use Patterns for Natural Resource Recreation and Tourism, Lansing, Mich.: Michigan Land Resource Project, Public Sector Consultants, 2001.
• Nelson, Jodi L., “The Lautenberg Amendment: An Essential Tool for Combatting Domestic Violence,” North Dakota Law Review, Vol. 75, No. 2, 1999, pp. 365–390.
• Nelson, Jon P., “Gender Differences in Alcohol Demand: A Systematic Review of the Role of Prices and Taxes,” Health Economics, Vol. 23, No. 10, 2014, pp. 1260–1280.
• Newell, Summer, Emily Kenyon, Khaya D. Clark, Victoria Elliott, Annabelle Rynerson, Martha S. Gerrity, Elizabeth Karras, Joseph A. Simonetti, and Steven K. Dobscha, “Veterans Are Agreeable to Discussions About Firearms Safety in Primary Care,” Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 34, No. 2, March 2021, pp. 338–345.
• Newman, Benjamin J., and Todd K. Hartman, “Mass Shootings and Public Support for Gun Control,” British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 49, No. 4, 2019, pp. 1527–1553.
• Niederkrotenthaler, Thomas, Joseph E. Logan, Debra L. Karch, and Alex Crosby, “Characteristics of U.S. Suicide Decedents in 2005–2010 Who Had Received Mental Health Treatment,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 65, No. 3, 2014, pp. 387–390.
• Niforatos, Joshua D., Alexander R. Zheutlin, and Richard M. Pescatore, “Public Interest in Gun Control in the USA,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 25, Supp. 1, 2019, pp. i16–i17.
• Noar, Seth M., Christina N. Benac, and Melissa S. Harris, “Does Tailoring Matter? Meta-Analytic Review of Tailored Print Health Behavior Change Interventions,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 133, No. 4, 2007, pp. 673–693.
• Nordentoft, Merete, Preben Bo Mortensen, and Carsten Bøcker Pedersen, “Absolute Risk of Suicide After First Hospital Contact in Mental Disorder,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 68, No. 10, October 2011, pp. 1058–1064.
• NRC—See National Research Council.
• NSSF—See National Shooting Sports Foundation.
• Office of the Inspector General, U.S. Department of Justice, Audit of the Handling of Firearms Purchase Denials Through the National Instant Criminal Background Check System, Washington, D.C., September 2016.
• Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, May 25, 2016.
• Office of the Surgeon General and National Action Alliance for Suicide Prevention, National Strategy for Suicide Prevention: Goals and Objectives for Action: A Report of the U.S. Surgeon General and of the National Action Alliance for Suicide Prevention, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012.
• Olson, David E., and Michael D. Maltz, “Right-to-Carry Concealed Weapon Laws and Homicide in Large U.S. Counties: The Effect on Weapon Types, Victim Characteristics, and Victim-Offender Relationships,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. S2, 2001, pp. 747–770.
• Oslin, D. W., C. Zubritsky, G. Brown, M. Mullahy, A. Puliafico, and T. Ten Have, “Managing Suicide Risk in Late Life: Access to Firearms as a Public Health Risk,” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2004, pp. 30–36.
• O’Sullivan, A., “Gentrification and Crime,” Journal of Urban Economics, Vol. 57, No. 1, 2005, pp. 73–85.
• Owens, David, Judith Horrocks, and Allan House, “Fatal and Non-Fatal Repetition of Self-Harm,” British Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 181, No. 3, 2002, pp. 193–199.
• Ozanne-Smith, J., K. Ashby, S. Newstead, V. Z. Stathakis, and A. Clapperton, “Firearm Related Deaths: The Impact of Regulatory Reform,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 10, No. 5, 2004, pp. 280–286.
• Pallin, Rocco, Sarabeth A. Spitzer, Megan L. Ranney, Marian E. Betz, and Garen J. Wintemute, “Preventing Firearm-Related Death and Injury,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 170, No. 11, June 4, 2019, pp. ITC81–ITC96.
• Palmer, Brian A., V. Shane Pankratz, and John Michael Bostwick, “The Lifetime Risk of Suicide in Schizophrenia: A Reexamination,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 62, No. 3, 2005, pp. 247–253.
• Papachristos, A. V., T. L. Meares, and J. Fagan, “Attention Felons: Evaluating Project Safe Neighborhoods in Chicago,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2007, pp. 223–272.
• Papachristos, A. V., C. M. Smith, M. L. Scherer, and M. A. Fugiero, “More Coffee, Less Crime? The Relationship Between Gentrification and Neighborhood Crime Rates in Chicago, 1991 to 2005,” City and Community, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2011, pp. 215–240.
• Papachristos, A. V., C. Wildeman, and E. Roberto, “Tragic, but Not Random: The Social Contagion of Nonfatal Gunshot Injuries,” Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 125, 2015, pp. 139–150.
• Parikh, Kavita, Alyssa Silver, Shilpa J. Patel, Sabah F. Iqbal, and Monika Goyal, “Pediatric Firearm-Related Injuries in the United States,” Hospital Pediatrics, Vol. 7, No. 6, June 2017, pp. 303–312.
• Park, Sung-Yeon, Kyle J. Holody, and Xiaoqun Zhang, “Race in Media Coverage of School Shootings: A Parallel Application of Framing Theory and Attribute Agenda Setting,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, Vol. 89, No. 3, 2012, pp. 475–494.
• Parker, George F., “Circumstances and Outcomes of a Firearm Seizure Law: Marion County, Indiana, 2006–2013,” Behavioral Sciences and the Law, Vol. 33, No. 2-3, 2015, pp. 308–322.
• Parker, Kim, Juliana Menasce Horowitz, Ruth Igielnik, Baxter Oliphant, and Anna Brown, America’s Complex Relationship with Guns, Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, June 22, 2017.
• Parker, R. N., K. R. Williams, K. J. McCaffree, E. K. Acensio, A. Browne, K. J. Strom, and K. Barrick, “Alcohol Availability and Youth Homicide in the 91 Largest U.S. Cities, 1984–2006,” Drug and Alcohol Review, Vol. 30, No. 5, 2011, pp. 505–514.
• Paternoster, R., “The Deterrent Effect of the Perceived Certainty and Severity of Punishment: A Review of the Evidence and Issues,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1987, pp. 173–217.
• Penzenstadler, Nick, Ryan J. Foley, and Larry Fenn, “Accidental Shootings Involving Kids Often Go Unpunished,” Associated Press, May 24, 2017.
• Pérez-Peña, Richard, “Two New Zealand Mosques, a Hate-Filled Massacre Designed for Its Time,” New York Times, March 15, 2019.
• Pescosolido, Bernice A., Bianca Manago, and John Monahan, “Evolving Public Views on the Likelihood of Violence from People with Mental Illness: Stigma and Its Consequences,” Health Affairs, Vol. 38, No. 10, October 2019, pp. 1735–1743.
• Petrosky, Emiko, Janet M. Blair, Carter J. Betz, Katherine A. Fowler, Shane P. D. Jack, and Bridget H. Lyons, “Racial and Ethnic Differences in Homicides of Adult Women and the Role of Intimate Partner Violence—United States, 2003–2014,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 66, No. 28, 2017, pp. 741–746.
• Phillips, C. D., O. Nwaiwu, D. K. McMaughan Moudouni, R. Edwards, and S. Lin, “When Concealed Handgun Licensees Break Bad: Criminal Convictions of Concealed Handgun Licensees in Texas, 2001–2009,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 103, No. 1, 2013, pp. 86–91.
• Phillips, J. A., and C. N. Nugent, “Antidepressant Use and Method of Suicide in the United States: Variation by Age and Sex, 1998–2007,” Archives of Suicide Research, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2013, pp. 360–372.
• Phipson, Belinda, and Gordon K. Smyth, “Permutation P-Values Should Never Be Zero: Calculating Exact P-Values When Permutations Are Randomly Drawn,” Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2010.
• Pierce, Glenn L., Anthony A. Braga, Christopher Koper, Jack McDevitt, David Carlson, Jeffrey Roth, Alan Saiz, Raymond Hyatt, and Roberta E. Griffith, The Characteristics and Dynamics of Crime Gun Markets: Implications for Supply-Side Focused Enforcement Strategies, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 2003.
• Pinho, R., and J. Rappa, Special Taxes on Guns, Ammunition, and Gun Shows, Hartford, Conn.: Connecticut General Assembly, Office of Legislative Research, OLR Research Report 2013-r-0034, January 10, 2013.
• Pirkola, Sami, Reijo Sund, Eila Sailas, and Kristian Wahlbeck, “Community Mental-Health Services and Suicide Rate in Finland: A Nationwide Small-Area Analysis,” Lancet, Vol. 373, No. 9658, 2009, pp. 147–153.
• Piscopo, Kathryn, Rachel N. Lipari, Jennifer Cooney, and Christie Galsheen, Suicidal Thoughts and Behavior Among Adults: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, NSDUH Data Review, September 2016.
• Piza, E. L., J. M. Caplan, L. W. Kennedy, and A. M. Gilchrist, “The Effects of Merging Proactive CCTV Monitoring with Directed Police Patrol: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2015, pp. 43–69.
• Pizarro, Jesenia M., and April M. Zeoli, “An Assessment of the Quality of Homicide Data in the Supplementary Homicide Reports: A Research Note,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2013, pp. 711–731.
• Planty, Michael, and Jennifer L. Truman, Firearm Violence, 1993–2011, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 2411730, May 2013.
• Plassmann, Florenz, and T. Nicolaus Tideman, “Does the Right to Carry Concealed Handguns Deter Countable Crimes? Only a Count Analysis Can Say,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 44, No. S2, 2001, pp. 771–798.
• Plassmann, F., and J. E. Whitley, “Comments: Confirming ‘More Guns, Less Crime,’” Stanford Law Review, Vol. 55, No. 4, 2003, pp. 1313–1369.
• Plumer, Brad, “Everything You Need to Know About the Assault Weapons Ban, in One Post,” Washington Post, December 17, 2012.
• Poudyal, N., S. H. Cho, and J. M. Bowker, “Demand for Resident Hunting in the Southeastern United States,” Human Dimensions of Wildlife, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2008, pp. 158–174.
• Price, James H., Adam J. Mrdjenovich, and Joseph A. Dake, “Prevalence of State Firearm Mortality and Mental Health Care Resources,” Journal of Community Health, Vol. 34, No. 5, 2009, pp. 383–391.
• Price, James H., Amy J. Thompson, and Joseph A. Dake, “Factors Associated with State Variations in Homicide, Suicide, and Unintentional Firearm Deaths,” Journal of Community Health, Vol. 29, No. 4, 2004, pp. 271–283.
• Prickett, Kate C., Alexa Martin-Storey, and Robert Crosnoe, “State Firearm Laws, Firearm Ownership, and Safety Practices Among Families of Preschool-Aged Children,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 104, No. 6, 2014, pp. 1080–1086.
• Public Law 90-618, Gun Control Act of 1968, October 22, 1968.
• Public Law 103-322, Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, 1994.
• Public Law 104-208, Section 658, Gun Ban for Individuals Convicted of a Misdemeanor Crime of Domestic Violence, 1996.
• Public Law 112-74, Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012, December 23, 2011.
• Public Law 112-265, Investigative Assistance for Violent Crimes Act of 2012, January 14, 2013.
• Public Law 116-94, Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020, December 23, 2019.
• Puzzanchera, C., G. Chamberlin, and W. Kang, “Easy Access to the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports: 1980–2014,” Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2017.
• Puzzanchera, C., G. Chamberlin, and W. Kang, “Easy Access to the FBI’s Supplementary Homicide Reports: 1980–2016,” Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2018.
• Raissian, Kerri M., “Hold Your Fire: Did the 1996 Federal Gun Control Act Expansion Reduce Domestic Homicides?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, Vol. 35, No. 1, Winter 2016, pp. 67–93.
• Rajkumar, A. P., E. M. Brinda, A. S. Duba, P. Thangadurai, and K. S. Jacob, “National Suicide Rates and Mental Health System Indicators: An Ecological Study of 191 Countries,” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, Vol. 36, No. 5, 2013, pp. 339–342.
• RAND Corporation, The Science of Gun Policy: A Critical Synthesis of Research Evidence on the Effects of Gun Policies in the United States, Santa Monica, Calif., RR-2088-RC, 2018. As of March 2, 2018: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2088.html
• RAND Corporation, Education Campaigns and Clinical Interventions for Promoting Safe Storage, Santa Monica, Calif., March 2, 2018b. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/essays/safe-storage.html
• RAND Corporation, The Effects of Child-Access Prevention Laws, Santa Monica, Calif., April 22, 2020a. As of June 15, 2022: https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/child-access-prevention.html
• RAND Corporation, The Effects of Firearm Safety Training Requirements, Santa Monica, Calif., April 22, 2020b. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.rand.org/research/gun-policy/analysis/firearm-safety-training-requirements.html
• Rangappa, Asha, “The Cost of Freedom: Using the Tax Power to Limit Personal Arsenals,” Yale Law and Policy Review Inter Alia, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2013, pp. 17–24.
• Raphael, S., and J. Ludwig, “Prison Sentence Enhancements: The Case of Project Exile,” in S. Raphael and J. Ludwig, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2003, pp. 251–286.
• Ratcliffe, J. H., M. Lattanzio, G. Kikuchi, and K. Thomas, “A Partially Randomized Field Experiment on the Effect of an Acoustic Gunshot Detection System on Police Incident Reports,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2019, pp. 67–76.
• Reaves, Brian A., Using NIBRS Data to Analyze Violent Crime, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, October 1993.
• Reisch, T., T. Steffen, A. Habenstein, and W. Tschacher, “Change in Suicide Rates in Switzerland Before and After Firearm Restriction Resulting from the 2003 ‘Army XXI’ Reform,” American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 170, No. 9, 2013, pp. 977–984.
• Ressler, Robert K., Ann W. Burgess, and John E. Douglas, Sexual Homicide: Patterns and Motives, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.
• Reuter, Peter, and Jenny Mouzos, “Australia: A Massive Buyback of Low-Risk Guns,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 121–156.
• Ribeiro, J. D., J. C. Franklin, K. R. Fox, K. H. Bentley, E. M. Kleiman, B. P. Chang, and M. K. Nock, “Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors as Risk Factors for Future Suicide Ideation, Attempts, and Death: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies,” Psychological Medicine, Vol. 46, No. 2, January 2016, pp. 225–236.
• Richards, Julie E., Elena Kuo, Christine Stewart, Jennifer F. Bobb, Kayne D. Mattert, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, Marian E. Betz, Rebecca Parrish, Ursula Whiteside, Jennifer M. Boggs, and Gregory E. Simon, “Self-Reported Access to Firearms Among Patients Receiving Care for Mental Health and Substance Use,” JAMA Health Forum, Vol. 2, No. 8, 2021, e211973.
• Richmond, Matthew, “With No National Standards, Policies for Arming Teachers Are Often Left to Local School Districts,” Guns & America, March 22, 2019.
• Robbins, Mel, “The Real Gun Problem Is Mental Health, Not the NRA,” CNN, 2014.
• Roberts, Darryl W., “Intimate Partner Homicide: Relationships to Alcohol and Firearms,” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2009, pp. 67–88.
• Roberts, John M., Jr., Aki Roberts, and Tim Wadsworth, “Multiple Imputation for Missing Values in Homicide Incident Data: An Evaluation Using Unique Test Data,” Homicide Studies, Vol. 22, No. 4, 2018, pp. 391–409.
• Robinson, Jo, Lay San Too, Jane Pirkis, and Matthew J. Spittal, “Spatial Suicide Clusters in Australia Between 2010 and 2012: A Comparison of Cluster and Non-Cluster Among Young People and Adults,” BMC Psychiatry, Vol. 16, 2016, article 417.
• Rockett, Ian R. H., Eric D. Caine, Steven Stack, Hilary S. Connery, Kurt B. Nolte, Christa L. Lilly, Ted R. Miller, Lewis S. Nelson, Sandra L. Putnam, Paul S. Nestadt, and Haomiao Jia, “Method Overtness, Forensic Autopsy, and the Evidentiary Suicide Note: A Multilevel National Violent Death Reporting System Analysis,” PLoS One, Vol. 13, No. 5, May 2018.
• Rockett, Ian R. H., Nestor D. Kapusta, and Jeffrey H. Coben, “Beyond Suicide: Action Needed to Improve Self-Injury Mortality Accounting,” JAMA Psychiatry, Vol. 71, No. 3, 2014, pp. 231–232.
• Rodway, Cathryn, Sandra Flynn, David While, Mohammed S. Rahman, Navneet Kapur, Louis Appleby, and Jenny Shaw, “Patients with Mental Illness as Victims of Homicide: A National Consecutive Case Series,” Lancet Psychiatry, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2014, pp. 129–134.
• Roeder, Oliver, “The Phrase ‘Mass Shooting’ Belongs to the 21st Century,” FiveThirtyEight, January 21, 2016.
• Rogers, William H., “Regression Standard Errors in Clustered Samples,” Stata Technical Bulletin, Vol. 13, 1993, pp. 19–23.
• Roman, C. G., N. W. Link, J. M. Hyatt, A. Bhati, and M. Forney, “Assessing the Gang-Level and Community-Level Effects of the Philadelphia Focused Deterrence Strategy,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, 2018, pp. 1–29.
• Roncek, D. W., and P. A. Maier, “Bars, Blocks, and Crimes Revisited: Linking the Theory of Routine Activities to the Empiricism of ‘Hot Spots,’” Criminology, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1991, pp. 725–753.
• Rosenfeld, R., and R. Fornango, “The Impact of Police Stops on Precinct Robbery and Burglary Rates in New York City, 2003–2010,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 1, 2014, pp. 96–122.
• Rosenfeld, R., R. Fornango, and E. Baumer, “Did Ceasefire, Compstat, and Exile Reduce Homicide?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2005, pp. 419–449.
• Rosengart, M., P. Cummings, A. Nathens, P. Heagerty, R. Maier, and F. Rivara, “An Evaluation of State Firearm Regulations and Homicide and Suicide Death Rates,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2005, pp. 77–83.
• Roskam, Kelly, and Vicka Chaplin, “The Gun Violence Restraining Order: An Opportunity for Common Ground in the Gun Violence Debate,” Developments in Mental Health Law, Vol. 36, No. 2, 2017, pp. 1–22.
• Rostker, Bernard D., Lawrence M. Hanser, William M. Hix, Carl Jensen, Andrew R. Morral, Greg Ridgeway, and Terry L. Schell, Evaluation of the New York City Police Department Firearm Training and Firearm-Discharge Review Process, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MG-717-NYPD, 2008. As of October 6, 2019: https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG717.html
• Roszko, Paul J. D., Jonathan Ameli, Patrick M. Carter, Rebecca M. Cunningham, and Megan L. Ranney, “Clinician Attitudes, Screening Practices, and Interventions to Reduce Firearm-Related Injury,” Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016, pp. 87–110.
• Roth, Jeffrey A., and Christopher S. Koper, Impact Evaluation of the Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act of 1994: Final Report, Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1997.
• Roth, Jeffrey A., and Christopher S. Koper, Impacts of the 1994 Assault Weapons Ban: 1994–96, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, March 1999.
• Rowhani-Rahbar, Ali, Deborah Azrael, Vivian H. Lyons, Joseph A. Simonetti, and Matthew Miller, “Loaded Handgun Carrying Among US Adults, 2015,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 107, No. 12, 2017, pp. 1930–1936.
• Rowhani-Rahbar, Ali, Vivian H. Lyons, Joseph A. Simonetti, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Formal Firearm Training Among Adults in the USA: Results of a National Survey,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2018, pp. 161–165.
• Rowhani-Rahbar, Ali, Joseph A. Simonetti, and Frederick P. Rivara, “Effectiveness of Interventions to Promote Safe Firearm Storage,” Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016, pp. 111–124.
• Ruback, R. B., J. N. Shaffer, and V. A. Clark, “Easy Access to Firearms: Juveniles’ Risks for Violent Offender and Violent Victimization,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Vol. 26, No. 10, 2011, pp. 2111–2138.
• Rubin, Paul H., and Hashem Dezhbakhsh, “The Effect of Concealed Handgun Laws on Crime: Beyond the Dummy Variables,” International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 23, No. 2, 2003, pp. 199–216.
• Ruddell, R., and G. L. Mays, “State Background Checks and Firearms Homicides,” Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2005, pp. 127–136.
• Rudolph, K. E., E. A. Stuart, J. S. Vernick, and D. W. Webster, “Association Between Connecticut’s Permit-to-Purchase Handgun Law and Homicides,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 105, No. 8, 2015, pp. E49–E54.
• Runyan, Carol W., Amy Becker, Sara Brandspigel, Catherine Barber, Aimee Trudeau, and Douglas Novins, “Lethal Means Counseling for Parents of Youth Seeking Emergency Care for Suicidality,” Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 17, No. 1, January 2016, pp. 8–14.
• Ruggles, K. V., and S. Rajan, “Gun Possession Among American Youth: A Discovery-Based Approach to Understand Gun Violence,” PLoS One, Vol. 9, No. 11, 2014.
• Ryan, R., A. Synnot, and S. Hill, Describing Results, Melbourne: Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group, December 1, 2016.
• Sakinofsky, Isaac, “Repetition of Suicidal Behavior,” in K. Hawton and K. P. van Heeringen, eds., The International Handbook of Suicide and Attempted Suicide, West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons, 2000.
• Sale, Elizabeth, Michelle Hendricks, Virginia Weil, Collin Miller, Scott Perkins, and Suzanne McCudden, “Counseling on Access to Lethal Means (CALM): An Evaluation of a Suicide Prevention Means Restriction Training Program for Mental Health Providers,” Community Mental Health Journal, Vol. 54, No. 3, April 2018, pp. 293–301.
• Salhi, Carmel, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Patterns of Gun Owner Beliefs About Firearm Risk in Relation to Firearm Storage: A Latent Class Analysis Using the 2019 National Firearms Survey,” Injury Prevention, July 14, 2020, online ahead of print.
• Salhi, Carmel, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Parent and Adolescent Reports of Adolescent Access to Household Firearms in the United States,” JAMA Network Open, Vol. 4, No. 3, March 9, 2021, e210989.
• Saltzman, Linda E., and Robin M. Ikeda, “Recommended Data Elements for Firearm-Related Injury Surveillance,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, Supp. 1, 1998, pp. 113–119.
• Saltzman, Linda E., James A. Mercy, Patrick W. O’Carroll, Mark L. Rosenberg, and Philip H. Rhodes, “Weapon Involvement and Injury Outcomes in Family and Intimate Assaults,” JAMA, Vol. 267, No. 22, 1992, pp. 3043–3047.
• Sanders, Nathan E., and Victor Lei, “The Role of Prior Information in Inference on the Annualized Rates of Mass Shootings in the United States,” Statistics and Public Policy, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2018, pp. 1–8.
• Santaella-Tenorio, J., M. Cerdá, A. Villaveces, and S. Galea, “What Do We Know About the Association Between Firearm Legislation and Firearm-Related Injuries?” Epidemiologic Reviews, Vol. 38, No. 1, 2016, pp. 140–157.
• Sarani, Babak, Cheralyn Hendrix, Mary Matecki, Jordan Estroff, Richard L. Amdur, Bryce R. H. Robinson, Geoff Shapiro, Stephen Gondek, Roger Mitchell, and E. Reed Smith, “Wounding Patterns Based on Firearm Type in Civilian Public Mass Shootings in the United States,” Journal of the American College of Surgeons, Vol. 228, No. 3, 2019, pp. 228–234.
• Saunders, J., P. Hunt, and J. S. Hollywood, “Predictions Put into Practice: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of Chicago’s Predictive Policing Pilot,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2016, pp. 347–371.
• Saunders, J., A. Ober, D. Barnes-Proby, and R. K. Brunson, “Police Legitimacy and Disrupting Overt Drug Markets,” Policing: An International Journal, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2016, pp. 667–679.
• Schaechter, Judy, “Guns in the Home,” HealthyChildren.org, last updated June 2, 2021. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/at-home/Pages/Handguns-in-the-Home.aspx
• Schaechter, Judy, Isis Duran, Jacqueline De Marchena, Glendene Lemard, and Maria Elena Villar, “Are ‘Accidental’ Gun Deaths as Rare as They Seem? A Comparison of Medical Examiner Manner of Death Coding with an Intent-Based Classification Approach,” Pediatrics, Vol. 111, No. 4, 2003, pp. 741–744.
• Schell, Terry L., Beth Ann Griffin, and Andrew R. Morral, Evaluating Methods to Estimate the Effect of State Laws on Firearm Deaths: A Simulation Study, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, RR-2685-RC, 2018. As of October 1, 2019: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2685.html
• Schell, Terry L., and Andrew R. Morral, Evaluating Methods and Findings from a Study of State Gun Policies, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, RR-1642-RC, 2016. As of January 13, 2017: http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1642.html
• Schildkraut, Jaclyn, H. Jaymi Elsass, and Kimberly Meredith, “Mass Shootings and the Media: Why All Events Are Not Created Equal,” Journal of Crime and Justice, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2018, pp. 223–243.
• Schleimer, Julia P., Christopher D. McCort, Aaron B. Shev, Veronica A. Pear, Elizabeth Tomsich, Alaina De Biasi, Shani Buggs, Hannah S. Laqueur, and Garen J. Wintemute, “Firearm Purchasing and Firearm Violence During the Coronavirus Pandemic in the United States: A Cross-Sectional Study,” Injury Epidemiology, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2021.
• Schnebly, Stephen M., “An Examination of the Impact of Victim, Offender, and Situational Attributes on the Deterrent Effect of Defensive Gun Use: A Research Note,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2002, pp. 377–398.
• Schnitzer, Patricia G., Heather K. Dykstra, Theodore E. Trigylidas, and Richard Lichenstein, “Firearm Suicide Among Youth in the United States, 2004–2015,” Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol. 42, No. 4, 2019, pp. 584–590.
• Schnobrich-Davis, J., S. Block, and J. Lupacchino, “Analysis of Herman Goldstein Problem-Oriented Policing Awards from 1993–2017,” Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 2018.
• Schorr, Robert A., Paul M. Lukacs, and Justin A. Gude, “The Montana Deer and Elk Hunting Population: The Importance of Cohort Group, License Price, and Population Demographics on Hunter Retention, Recruitment, and Population Change,” Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 78, No. 5, 2014, pp. 944–952.
• Scott, John, Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Firearm Storage in Homes with Children with Self-Harm Risk Factors,” Pediatrics, Vol. 141, No. 3, March 2018, e20172600.
• Sen, B., and A. Panjamapirom, “State Background Checks for Gun Purchase and Firearm Deaths: An Exploratory Study,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 55, No. 4, 2012, pp. 346–350.
• Shaffer, J. P., “Multiple Hypothesis Testing,” Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 46, 1995, pp. 561–584.
• Shah, S., R. E. Hoffman, L. Wake, and W. M. Marine, “Adolescent Suicide and Household Access to Firearms in Colorado: Results of a Case-Control Study,” Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2000, pp. 157–163.
• Sharkey, P., Uneasy Peace: The Great Crime Decline, the Renewal of City Life, and the Next War on Violence, New York: W. W. Norton, 2018.
• Sharkey, P., G. Torrats-Espinosa, and D. Takyar, “Community and the Crime Decline: The Causal Effect of Local Nonprofits on Violent Crime,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 82, No. 6, 2017, pp. 1214–1240.
• Shearer, Hannah E., and Allison S. Anderman, “Analyzing Gun-Violence-Prevention Taxes Under Emerging Firearm Fee Jurisprudence,” Southern Illinois University Law Journal, Vol. 43, 2018, pp. 157–192.
• Sheley, J. F., and J. D. Wright, Gun Acquisition and Possession in Selected Juvenile Samples, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 1993.
• Sheley, J. F., and J. D. Wright, High School Youths, Weapons, and Violence: A National Survey, Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, 1998.
• Shenassa, E. D., S. N. Catlin, and S. L. Buka, “Gun Availability, Psychopathology, and Risk of Death from Suicide Attempt by Gun,” Annals of Epidemiology, Vol. 10, No. 7, October 2000, p. 482.
• Shenassa, E. D., C. Daskalakis, and S. L. Buka, “Utility of Indices of Gun Availability in the Community,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Vol. 60, No. 1, 2006, pp. 44–49.
• Shenassa, E. D., M. L. Rogers, K. L. Spalding, and M. B. Roberts, “Safer Storage of Firearms at Home and Risk of Suicide: A Study of Protective Factors in a Nationally Representative Sample,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Vol. 58, No. 10, 2004, pp. 841–848.
• Sherman, L. W., “Police Crackdowns: Initial and Residual Deterrence,” Crime and Justice, Vol. 12, 1990, pp. 1–48.
• Sherman, L. W., P. R. Gartin, and M. E. Buerger, “Hot Spots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place,” Criminology, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1989, pp. 27–56.
• Shi, Wei, and Lung-fei Lee, “The Effects of Gun Control on Crimes: A Spatial Interactive Fixed Effects Approach,” Empirical Economics, Vol. 55, No. 1, 2018, pp. 233–263.
• Shumway, Martha, Jennifer Alvidrez, Mark Leary, Deborah Sherwood, Eric Woodard, Emily K. Lee, Heather Hall, Ralph A. Catalano, and James W. Dilley, “Impact of Capacity Reductions in Acute Public-Sector Inpatient Psychiatric Services,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 63, No. 2, 2012, pp. 135–141.
• Sidebottom, A., and N. Tilley, “Improving Problem-Oriented Policing: The Need for a New Model?” Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2011, pp. 79–101.
• Sidman, Elanor A., David C. Grossman, Thomas D. Koepsell, Luann D’Ambrosio, John Britt, Evan S. Simpson, Frederick P. Rivara, and Abraham B. Bergman, “Evaluation of a Community-Based Handgun Safe-Storage Campaign,” Pediatrics, Vol. 115, No. 6, 2005, pp. E654–E661.
• Siegel, Michael, Molly Pahn, Ziming Xuan, Craig S. Ross, Sandro Galea, Bindu Kalesan, Eric Fleegler, and Kristin A. Goss, “Firearm-Related Laws in All 50 US States, 1991–2016,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 107, No. 7, 2017a, pp. 1122–1129.
• Siegel, Michael, Craig S. Ross, and Charles King, “Examining the Relationship Between the Prevalence of Guns and Homicide Rates in the USA Using a New and Improved State-Level Gun Ownership Proxy,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 20, No. 6, 2014, pp. 424–426.
• Siegel, Michael, Ziming Xuan, Craig S. Ross, Sandro Galea, Bindu Kalesan, Eric Fleegler, and Kristin A. Goss, “Easiness of Legal Access to Concealed Firearm Permits and Homicide Rates in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 107, No. 12, 2017b, pp. 1923–1929.
• Silva, Jason R., and Joel A. Capellan, “A Comparative Analysis of Media Coverage of Mass Public Shootings: Examining Rampage, Disgruntled Employee, School, and Lone-Wolf Terrorist Shootings in the United States,” Criminal Justice Policy Review, Vol. 30, No. 9, 2019a, pp. 1312–1341.
• Silva, Jason R., and Joel A. Capellan, “The Media’s Coverage of Mass Public Shootings in America: Fifty Years of Newsworthiness,” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2019b, pp. 77–97.
• Silver, James, William Fisher, and John Horgan, “Public Mass Murderers and Federal Mental Health Background Checks,” Law and Policy, Vol. 40, No. 2, 2018, pp. 133–147.
• Silver, James, Andre Simons, and Sarah Craun, A Study of the Pre-Attack Behaviors of Active Shooters in the United States Between 2000 and 2013, Washington, D.C.: Federal Bureau of Investigation, June 2018.
• Simon, Robert I., and Liza H. Gold, “Decreasing Suicide Mortality: Clinical Risk Assessment and Firearm Management,” in Liza H. Gold and Robert I. Simon, eds., Gun Violence and Mental Illness, Arlington, Va.: American Psychiatric Association Publishing, 2016, pp. 249–289.
• Simon, T. R., A. C. Swann, K. E. Powell, L. B. Potter, M. Kresnow, and P. W. O’Carroll, “Characteristics of Impulsive Suicide Attempts and Attempters,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 32, Supp. 1, 2002, pp. 49–59.
• Simonetti, Joseph A., Deborah Azrael, and Matthew Miller, “Firearm Storage Practices and Risk Perceptions Among a Nationally Representative Sample of U.S. Veterans With and Without Self‐Harm Risk Factors,” Suicide and Life‐Threatening Behavior, Vol. 49, No. 3, 2019, pp. 653–664.
• Simonetti, Joseph A., Deborah Azrael, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, and Matthew Miller, “Firearm Storage Practices Among American Veterans,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 55, No. 4, October 2018, pp. 445–454.
• Simonetti, Joseph A., Jessica L. Mackelprang, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, Douglas Zatzick, and Frederick P. Rivara, “Psychiatric Comorbidity, Suicidality, and in-Home Firearm Access Among a Nationally Representative Sample of Adolescents,” JAMA Psychiatry, Vol. 72, No. 2, 2015, pp. 152–159.
• Simonetti, Joseph A., Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, Cassie King, Elizabeth Bennett, and Frederick P. Rivara, “Evaluation of a Community-Based Safe Firearm and Ammunition Storage Intervention,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 24, No. 3, 2018, pp. 218–223.
• Simonetti, Joseph A., Mary Kay Theis, Ali Rowhani-Rahbar, Evette J. Ludman, and David C. Grossman, “Firearm Storage Practices in Households of Adolescents With and Without Mental Illness,” Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 61, No. 5, 2017, pp. 583–590.
• Skeem, Jennifer, and Edward Mulvey, “What Role Does Serious Mental Illness Play in Mass Shootings, and How Should We Address It?” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 85–108.
• Slutkin, G., C. Ransford, and R. B. Decker, “Cure Violence: Treating Violence as a Contagious Disease,” in M. D. Maltz and S. K. Rice, Envisioning Criminology, New York: Springer, 2015, pp. 43–56.
• Small Arms Survey, “Annexe 4. The Largest Civilian Firearms Arsenals for 178 Countries,” in Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and the City, Geneva: Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, August 2007.
• Smart, Rosanna, Andrew R. Morral, Sierra Smucker, Samantha Cherney, Terry L. Schell, Samuel Peterson, Sangeeta C. Ahluwalia, Matthew Cefalu, Lea Xenakis, Rajeev Ramchand, and Carole Roan Gresenz, The Science of Gun Policy: A Critical Synthesis of Research Evidence on the Effects of Gun Policies in the United States, 2nd ed., Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, RR-2088-1-RC/AV, 2020. As of March 30, 2020: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2088-1.html
• Smart, Rosanna, Andrew R. Morral, and Terry L. Schell, The Magnitude and Sources of Disagreement Among Gun Policy Experts, 2nd ed., Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, RR-A243-3, 2021. As of November 29, 2021: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA243-3.html
• Smith, N. D., and I. Kawachi, “State-Level Social Capital and Suicide Mortality in the 50 U.S. States,” Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 120, 2014, pp. 269–277.
• Smith, P. N., J. Currier, and K. Drescher, “Firearm Ownership in Veterans Entering Residential PTSD Treatment: Associations with Suicide Ideation, Attempts, and Combat Exposure,” Psychiatry Research, Vol. 229, No. 1–2, 2015, pp. 220–224.
• Smith, Sharon G., Jieru Chen, Kathleen C. Basile, Leah K. Gilbert, Melissa T. Merrick, Nimesh Patel, Margie Walling, and Anurag Jain, The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010–2012 State Report, Atlanta, Ga.: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017.
• Smith, Sharon G., Katherine A. Fowler, and Phyllis H. Niolon, “Intimate Partner Homicide and Corollary Victims in 16 States: National Violent Death Reporting System, 2003–2009,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 104, No. 3, 2014, pp. 461–466.
• Smith, T. W., and J. Son, Trends in Gun Ownership in the United States, 1972–2014, Chicago, Ill.: NORC at the University of Chicago, March 2015.
• Smucker, Sierra, Rose E. Kerber, and Philip J. Cook, “Suicide and Additional Homicides Associated with Intimate Partner Homicide: North Carolina 2004–2013,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 95, No. 3, 2018, pp. 337–343.
• Snyder, L. B., and M. A. Hamilton, “A Meta-Analysis of U.S. Health Campaign Effects on Behavior: Emphasize Enforcement, Exposure, and New Information, and Beware the Secular Trend,” in R. C. Hornik, ed., Public Health Communication: Evidence for Behavior Change, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2002, pp. 357–383.
• Sokol, Rebeccah Lyn, Carissa Schmidt, Alison L. Miller, Maureen A. Walton, Marc Zimmerman, Kenneth Resnicow, Rebecca M. Cunningham, and Patrick M. Carter, “Motivations for Firearm Possession and Storage Practices Among Urban Young Adults: Differences Between Parents and Non-Parents,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 27, No. 5, 2021, pp. 409–412.
• Sorenson, Susan B., “Guns in Intimate Partner Violence: Comparing Incidents by Type of Weapon,” Journal of Women’s Health, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2017, pp. 249–258.
• Sorenson, Susan B., and Rebecca A. Schut, “Nonfatal Gun Use in Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review of the Literature,” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2018, pp. 431–442.
• Southwick Associates, Target Shooting in America, Newtown, Conn.: National Shooting Sports Foundation, 2013.
• Spicer, R. S., and T. R. Miller, “Suicide Acts in 8 States: Incidence and Case Fatality Rates by Demographics and Method,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 90, No. 12, 2000, pp. 1885–1891.
• Spitzer, Robert J., “Gun Law History in the United States and Second Amendment Rights,” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 80, No. 2, 2017, pp. 55–83.
• Stander, V. A., S. M. Hilton, A. P. Doran, A. D. Werbel, and C. J. Thomsen, Department of the Navy Suicide Incident Report (DONSIR): Summary of 1999–2004 Findings, San Diego, Calif.: Naval Health Research Center, 2006.
• Stanford Geospatial Center, “Mass Shootings in America,” Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Libraries, undated. As of June 3, 2020: https://library.stanford.edu/projects/mass-shootings-america
• Stanford Geospatial Center, “MSA,” GitHub data repository, March 26, 2018. As of December 11, 2020: https://github.com/StanfordGeospatialCenter/MSA
• Stanley, Ian H., and Michael D. Anestis, “The Intersection of PTSD Symptoms and Firearm Storage Practices Within a Suicide Prevention Framework: Findings from a U.S. Army National Guard Sample,” Psychological Services, Vol. 18, No. 3, August 2021, pp. 335–344.
• Stanley, Ian H., Melanie A. Hom, Natalie J. Sachs-Ericsson, Austin J. Gallyer, and Thomas E. Joiner, “A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial of a Lethal Means Safety Intervention for Young Adults with Firearm Familiarity at Risk for Suicide,” Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology, Vol. 88, No. 4, April 2020, pp. 372–383.
• Stark, David E., "Methods and Annotated Code Pertaining to Funding and Publication of Research on Gun Violence and Other Leading Causes of Death," GitHub, January 4, 2017. As of February 1, 2018: https://github.com/davidestark/gun-violence-research
• Stark, David E., and Nigam H. Shah, “Funding and Publication of Research on Gun Violence and Other Leading Causes of Death,” JAMA, Vol. 317, No. 1, January 3, 2017, pp. 84–86.
• Steadman, Henry J., John Monahan, Debra A. Pinals, Roumen Vesselinov, and Pamela Clark Robbins, “Gun Violence and Victimization of Strangers by Persons with a Mental Illness: Data from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 66, No. 11, 2015, pp. 1238–1241.
• Steadman, Henry J., Edward P. Mulvey, John Monahan, Pamela Clark Robbins, Paul S. Appelbaum, Thomas Grisso, Loren H. Roth, and Eric Silver, “Violence by People Discharged from Acute Psychiatric Inpatient Facilities and by Others in the Same Neighborhoods,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 55, No. 5, 1998, pp. 393–401.
• Stehr, Mark, “Cigarette Tax Avoidance and Evasion,” Journal of Health Economics, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2005, pp. 277–297.
• Stehr, Mark, “The Effect of Sunday Sales Bans and Excise Taxes on Drinking and Cross-Border Shopping for Alcoholic Beverages,” National Tax Journal, Vol. 60, No. 1, 2007, pp. 85–105.
• Steidley, Trent Taylor, Movements, Malefactions, and Munitions: Determinants and Effects of Concealed Carry Laws in the United States, dissertation, Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 2016.
• Steidley, Trent, and Martin T. Kosla, “Toward a Status Anxiety Theory of Macro-Level Firearm Demand,” Social Currents, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2018, pp. 86–103.
• Stevens, Marguerite M., Ardis L. Olson, Cecelia A. Gaffney, Tor D. Tosteson, Leila A. Mott, and Pamela Starr, “A Pediatric, Practice-Based, Randomized Trial of Drinking and Smoking Prevention and Bicycle Helmet, Gun, and Seatbelt Safety Promotion,” Pediatrics, Vol. 109, No. 3, 2002, pp. 409–407.
• Stevenson, Dru, “The Urgent Need for Legal Scholarship on Firearm Policy,” Buffalo Law Review, Vol. 67, No. 5, 2019, pp. 1449–1506.
• Stone, Deborah M., Kristin M. Holland, Lara B. Schiff, and Wendy LiKamWa McIntosh, “Mixed Methods Analysis of Sex Differences in Life Stressors of Middle-Aged Suicides,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 51, No. 5, Supp. 3, 2016, pp. S209–S218.
• Stone, Michael H., “Mass Murder, Mental Illness, and Men,” Violence and Gender, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2015, pp. 51–86.
• Strnad, Jeff, “Should Legal Empiricists Go Bayesian?” American Law and Economics Review, Vol. 9, No. 1, Spring 2007, pp. 195–303.
• Studdert, David M., Yifan Zhang, Jonathan A. Rodden, Rob J. Hyndman, and Garen J. Wintemute, “Handgun Acquisitions in California After Two Mass Shootings,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 166, No. 10, 2017, pp. 698–706.
• Studdert, David M., Yifan Zhang, Sonja A. Swanson, Lea Prince, Jonathan A. Rodden, Erin E. Holsinger, Matthew J. Spittal, Garen J. Wintemute, and Matthew Miller, “Handgun Ownership and Suicide in California,” New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 382, No. 23, 2020, pp. 2220–2229.
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Mental Health: Mental Health Detailed Tables, Rockville, Md., 2016.
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Results from the 2017 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables, Rockville, Md., 2018.
• Suicide and Emotion Dysregulation Lab, “Mississippi Gun Storage Map,” webpage, undated. As of December 7, 2021: http://mikeanestis.weebly.com/ms-gun-storage-map.html
• Suicide Prevention Resource Center, “CALM: Counseling on Access to Lethal Means,” webpage, 2018. As of December 6, 2021: https://www.sprc.org/resources-programs/calm-counseling-access-lethal-means
• Sullum, Jacob, “Colorado’s New ‘Red Flag’ Law Illustrates the Pitfalls of Disarming People Based on Their Future Behaviors,” Reason Foundation, April 29, 2019.
• Sumner, S. A., P. M. Layde, and C. E. Guse, “Firearm Death Rates and Association with Level of Firearm Purchase Background Check,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 35, No. 1, 2008, pp. 1–6.
• Sun, L., G. C. van Kooten, and G. M. Voss, “Demand for Wildlife Hunting in British Columbia,” Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 53, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 25–46.
• Swahn, M. H., B. Ali, R. M. Bossarte, M. van Dulmen, A. Crosby, A. C. Jones, and K. C. Schinka, “Self-Harm and Suicide Attempts Among High-Risk, Urban Youth in the U.S.: Shared and Unique Risk and Protective Factors,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2012, pp. 178–191.
• Swanson, Jeffrey W., “Mental Disorder, Substance Abuse, and Community Violence: An Epidemiological Approach,” in J. Monahan and H. Steadman, eds., Violence and Mental Disorder, Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp. 101–136.
• Swanson, Jeffrey W., Michele M. Easter, Kelly Alanis-Hirsch, Charles M. Belden, Michael A. Norko, Allison G. Robertson, Linda K. Frisman, Hsiu-Ju Lin, Marvin S. Swartz, and George F. Parker, “Criminal Justice and Suicide Outcomes with Indiana's Risk-Based Gun Seizure Law,” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, Vol. 47, No. 2, 2019, pp. 1–10.
• Swanson, Jeffrey W., Michele M. Easter, Allison G. Robertson, Marvin S. Swartz, Kelly Alanis-Hirsch, Daniel Moseley, Charles Dion, and John Petrila, “Gun Violence, Mental Illness, and Laws That Prohibit Gun Possession: Evidence from Two Florida Counties,” Health Affairs, Vol. 35, No. 6, 2016, pp. 1067–1075.
• Swanson, J. W., C. E. Holzer III, V. K. Ganju, and R. T. Jono, “Violence and Psychiatric Disorder in the Community: Evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Surveys,” Psychiatric Services, Vol. 41, No. 7, 1990, pp. 761–770.
• Swanson, J. W., E. E. McGinty, S. Fazel, and V. M. Mays, “Mental Illness and Reduction of Gun Violence and Suicide: Bringing Epidemiologic Research to Policy,” Annals of Epidemiology, Vol. 25, No. 5, 2015, pp. 366–376.
• Swanson, Jeffrey W., Michael A. Norko, Hsiu-Ju Lin, Kelly Alanis-Hirsch, Linda K. Frisman, Madelon V. Baranoski, Michele M. Easter, Allison G. Robertson, Marvin S. Swartz, and Richard J. Bonnie, “Implementation and Effectiveness of Connecticut's Risk-Based Gun Removal Law: Does It Prevent Suicides?” Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 80, No. 2, 2017, pp. 179–208.
• Swanson, J. W., A. G. Robertson, L. K. Frisman, M. A. Norko, H. Lin, M. S. Swartz, and P. J. Cook, “Preventing Gun Violence Involving People with Serious Mental Illness,” in D. W. Webster and J. S. Vernick, eds., Reducing Gun Violence in America: Informing Policy with Evidence and Analysis, Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013, pp. 33–51.
• Swedler, D. I., M. M. Simmons, F. Dominici, and D. Hemenway, “Firearm Prevalence and Homicides of Law Enforcement Officers in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 105, No. 10, 2015, pp. 2042–2048.
• Tark, Jongyeon, and Gary Kleck, “Resisting Crime: The Effects of Victim Action on the Outcomes of Crimes,” Criminology, Vol. 42, No. 4, 2004, pp. 861–909.
• Tate, Julie, Jennifer Jenkins, and Steven Rich, “Fatal Force,” Washington Post, March 31, 2019. As of November 18, 2019: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/2018/national/police-shootings-2018/
• Taylor, Melanie A., “A Comprehensive Study of Mass Murder Precipitants and Motivations of Offenders,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, Vol. 62, No. 2, 2018, pp. 427–449.
• Teisl, M. F., K. J. Boyle, and R. E. Record, Jr., “License-Sales Revenues: Understanding Angler and Hunter Reaction to Changes in License Prices,” Human Dimensions of Wildlife, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1999, pp. 1–17.
• Teplin, L. A., G. M. McClelland, K. M. Abram, and D. A. Weiner, “Crime Victimization in Adults with Severe Mental Illness: Comparison with the National Crime Victimization Survey,” Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 62, No. 8, 2005, pp. 911–921.
• Thompson, R., V. Kane, J. M. Cook, R. Greenstein, P. Walker, and G. Woody, “Suicidal Ideation in Veterans Receiving Treatment for Opiate Dependence,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2006, pp. 149–156.
• Thomson Healthcare, Ranking America’s Mental Health: An Analysis of Depression Across the States, Washington, D.C.: Mental Health America, 2007.
• Tillyer, M. S., R. S. Engel, and B. Lovins, “Beyond Boston: Applying Theory to Understand and Address Sustainability Issues in Focused Deterrence Initiatives for Violence Reduction,” Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 58, No. 6, 2012, pp. 973–997.
• Tillyer, M. S., and D. M. Kennedy, “Locating Focused Deterrence Approaches Within a Situational Crime Prevention Framework,” Crime Prevention and Community Safety, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2008, pp. 75–84.
• Tita, G. E., A. A. Braga, G. Ridgeway, and G. L. Pierce, “The Criminal Purchase of Firearm Ammunition,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 12, No. 5, 2006, pp. 308–311.
• Tondo, Leonardo, Matthew J. Albert, and Ross J. Baldessarini, “Suicide Rates in Relation to Health Care Access in the United States: An Ecological Study,” Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, Vol. 67, No. 4, 2006, pp. 517–523.
• Tritch, Teresa, “Keep Handguns Away from Teenagers,” New York Times, May 30, 2014.
• Tyler, T. R., J. Fagan, and A. Geller, “Street Stops and Police Legitimacy: Teachable Moments in Young Urban Men’s Legal Socialization,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2014, pp. 751–785.
• Uggen, C., and S. McElrath, “Six Social Sources of the U.S. Crime Drop,” Society Pages, February 4, 2013.
• Ukert, Benjamin, Elena Andreyeva, and Charles C. Branas, “Time Series Robustness Checks to Test the Effects of the 1996 Australian Firearm Law on Cause-Specific Mortality,” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2018, pp. 141–154.
• United States Code, Title 18, Chapter 44, Firearms.
• United States Code, Title 18, Section 921, Definitions.
• United States Code, Title 18, Section 922, Unlawful Acts.
• United States Code, Title 18, Section 923, Licensing.
• United States Code, Title 18, Section 926, Rules and Regulations.
• United States Code, Title 18, Section 930, Possession of Firearms and Dangerous Weapons in Federal Facilities.
• United States Code, Title 20, Section 7961, Gun-Free Schools Act.
• United States Code, Title 26, Section 5801, Imposition of Tax.
• United States Code, Title 26, Section 5841, Registration of Firearms.
• United States Concealed Carry Association, “Traveling? Know Concealed Carry Permit Info by State,” West Bend, Wisc., August 7, 2013.
• University of Washington, Harborview Injury Prevention and Research Center, “Washington Firearm Safe Storage Map,” webpage, undated. As of December 7, 2021: https://hiprc.org/firearm/firearm-storage-wa/
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Current Employment Statistics (National),” 2017. As of May 15, 2017: https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/ceseeb1a.htm
• U.S. Census Bureau, Number of Firms, Number of Establishments, Employment, and Annual Payroll by Enterprise Employment Size for the United States, All Industries: 2014, Washington, D.C., December 2016.
• U.S. Census Bureau, “U.S. and World Population Clock,” 2017. As of March 22, 2017: https://www.census.gov/popclock/
• U.S. Census Bureau, “National Population by Characteristics: 2010–2019,” web tool, June 17, 2020. As of June 20, 2020: https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2010s-national-detail.html
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Active Shooter: How to Respond, Washington, D.C., October 2008.
• U.S. Department of Justice, “Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Fact Sheet,” Washington, D.C., October 24, 1994. As of May 30, 2017: https://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles/billfs.txt
• U.S. Department of Justice, “Department of Justice Awards $1 Million to the National Crime Prevention Council to Support Gun Safety Campaign,” press release, March 7, 2013.
• U.S. Department of Labor, Fact Sheet: The Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008 (MHPAEA), Washington, D.C., January 29, 2010. As of October 18, 2017: https://www.dol.gov/sites/default/files/ebsa/about-ebsa/our-activities/resource-center/fact-sheets/mhpaea.pdf
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Hunting License Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, May 5, 2015.
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2016 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation, Washington, D.C., FHW/16-NAT, April 2018.
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, and U.S. Department of Commerce, 2011 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation, Washington, D.C., FH2/11-NAT, 2012.
• U.S. General Accounting Office, Firearms Purchased from Federal Firearm Licensees Using Bogus Identification, Washington, D.C., GAO-01-427NI, 2001.
• U.S. House of Representatives, Gun Violence Prevention and Community Safety Act of 2020, Bill 5717, January 30, 2020.
• USA Carry, “Concealed Carry Permit Reciprocity Maps,” webpage, April 20, 2017. As of June 29, 2017: http://www.usacarry.com/concealed_carry_permit_reciprocity_maps.html
• van Dijk, Jan, John van Kesteren, and Paul Smit, Criminal Victimisation in International Perspective: Key Findings from the 2004–2005 ICVS and EU ICS, New York: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2007.
• Vernick, Jon S., Ted Alcorn, and Joshua Horwitz, “Background Checks for All Gun Buyers and Gun Violence Restraining Orders: State Efforts to Keep Guns from High-Risk Persons,” Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics, Vol. 45, Supp. 1, 2017, pp. 98–102.
• Vernick, J. S., and L. M. Hepburn, “State and Federal Gun Laws: Trends for 1970–1999,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 345–402.
• Vernick, Jon S., Daniel W. Webster, and Lisa M. Hepburn, “Effects of Maryland's Law Banning Saturday Night Special Handguns on Crime Guns,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1999, pp. 259–263.
• Vespa, Jonathan, Jamie M. Lewis, and Rose M. Kreider, America’s Families and Living Arrangements: 2012, Current Population Reports, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, P20–570, 2013.
• Vigdor, E. R., and J. A. Mercy, “Disarming Batterers: The Impact of Domestic Violence Firearms Laws,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pp. 157–200.
• Vigdor, E. R., and J. A. Mercy, “Do Laws Restricting Access to Firearms by Domestic Violence Offenders Prevent Intimate Partner Homicide?” Evaluation Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, 2006, pp. 313–346.
• Vince, Joseph J., Timothy Wolfe, and Layton Field, Firearms Training and Self-Defense: Does the Quality and Frequency of Training Determine the Realistic Use of Firearms by Citizens for Self-Defense? Chicago, Ill.: National Gun Victims Action Council, 2015.
• Violence Policy Center, “Concealed Carry Killers,” webpage, 2017. As of March 23, 2017: http://concealedcarrykillers.org/
• Violence Policy Center, Firearm Justifiable Homicides and Non-Fatal Self-Defense Gun Use: An Analysis of Federal Bureau of Investigation and National Crime Victimization Survey Data, Washington, D.C., September 2018.
• The Violence Project, “Mass Shooter Database,” web tool, undated. As of June 8, 2020: https://www.theviolenceproject.org/mass-shooter-database/
• Vittes, K. A., and S. B. Sorenson, “Recreational Gun Use by California Adolescents,” Health Education and Behavior, Vol. 32, No. 6, 2005, pp. 751–766.
• Vittes, K. A., J. S. Vernick, and D. W. Webster, “Legal Status and Source of Offenders’ Firearms in States with the Least Stringent Criteria for Gun Ownership,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 19, No. 1, June 23, 2012, pp. 26–31.
• Vittes, Katherine A., Daniel W. Webster, Shannon Frattaroli, Barbara E. Claire, and Garen J. Wintemute, “Removing Guns from Batterers: Findings from a Pilot Survey of Domestic Violence Restraining Order Recipients in California,” Violence Against Women, Vol. 19, No. 5, 2013, pp. 602–616.
• Vyrostek, S. B., J. L. Annest, and G. W. Ryan, “Surveillance for Fatal and Nonfatal Injuries—United States, 2001,” MMWR Surveillance Summary, Vol. 53, 2004, pp. 1–57.
• Wadsworth, T., C. E. Kubrin, and J. R. Herting, “Investigating the Rise (and Fall) of Young Black Male Suicide in the United States, 1982–2001,” Journal of African American Studies, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2014, pp. 72–91.
• Wadsworth, Tim, and John M. Roberts, Jr., “When Missing Data Are Not Missing: A New Approach to Evaluating Supplemental Homicide Report Imputation Strategies,” Criminology, Vol. 46, No. 4, 2008, pp. 841–870.
• Wagenaar, Alexander C., Matthew J. Salois, and Kelli A. Komro, “Effects of Beverage Alcohol Price and Tax Levels on Drinking: A Meta‐Analysis of 1003 Estimates from 112 Studies,” Addiction, Vol. 104, No. 2, 2009, pp. 179–190.
• Wallace, Lacey N., “Castle Doctrine Legislation: Unintended Effects for Gun Ownership?” Justice Policy Journal, Vol. 11, No. 2, Fall 2014.
• Wang, N., L. Liu, and J. E. Eck, “Analyzing Crime Displacement with a Simulation Approach,” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2014, pp. 359–374.
• Warburton, A. L., and J. P. Shepherd, “Tackling Alcohol Related Violence in City Centres: Effect of Emergency Medicine and Police Intervention,” Emergency Medicine Journal, Vol. 23, No. 1, 2006, pp. 12–17.
• Watkins, Adam M., Beth M. Huebner, and Scott H. Decker, “Patterns of Gun Acquisition, Carrying, and Use Among Juvenile and Adult Arrestees: Evidence from a High‐Crime City,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2008, pp. 674–700.
• Watkins, Adam M., and Alan J. Lizotte, “Does Household Gun Access Increase the Risk of Attempted Suicide? Evidence from a National Sample of Adolescents,” Youth and Society, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2013, pp. 324–346.
• Webster, D., C. K. Crifasi, and J. S. Vernick, “Effects of the Repeal of Missouri’s Handgun Purchaser Licensing Law on Homicides,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 91, No. 2, 2014, pp. 293–302.
• Webster, D. W., L. H. Freed, S. Frattaroli, and M. H. Wilson, “How Delinquent Youths Acquire Guns: Initial Versus Most Recent Gun Acquisitions,” Journal of Urban Health, Vol. 79, No. 1, 2002, pp. 60–69.
• Webster, Daniel W., Alexander D. McCourt, Cassandra K. Crifasi, Marisa D. Booty, and Elizabeth A. Stuart, “Evidence Concerning the Regulation of Firearms Design, Sale, and Carrying on Fatal Mass Shootings in the United States,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 171–212.
• Webster, Daniel W., and Marc Starnes, “Reexamining the Association Between Child Access Prevention Gun Laws and Unintentional Shooting Deaths of Children,” Pediatrics, Vol. 106, No. 6, 2000, pp. 1466–1469.
• Webster, Daniel W., Jon S. Vernick, and Maria T. Bulzacchelli, “Effects of State-Level Firearm Seller Accountability Policies on Firearm Trafficking,” Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. 86, No. 4, 2009, pp. 525–537.
• Webster, Daniel W., Jon S. Vernick, and Lisa M. Hepburn, “Relationship Between Licensing, Registration, and Other Gun Sales Laws and the Source State of Crime Guns,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 7, 2001, pp. 184–189.
• Webster, Daniel W., Jon S. Vernick, and Lisa M. Hepburn, “Effects of Maryland's Law Banning ‘Saturday Night Special’ Handguns on Homicides,” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 155, No. 5, 2002, pp. 406–412.
• Webster, Daniel W., Jon S. Vernick, Emma E. McGinty, and Ted Alcorn, “Preventing the Diversion of Guns to Criminals Through Effective Firearm Sales Laws,” in Daniel W. Webster and Jon S. Vernick, eds., Reducing Gun Violence in America: Informing Policy with Evidence and Analysis, Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013, pp. 109–121.
• Webster, D. W., J. S. Vernick, A. M. Zeoli, and J. A. Manganello, “Association Between Youth-Focused Firearm Laws and Youth Suicides,” JAMA, Vol. 292, No. 5, 2004, pp. 594–601.
• Webster, D. W., and G. J. Wintemute, “Effects of Policies Designed to Keep Firearms from High-Risk Individuals,” Annual Review of Public Health, Vol. 36, 2015, pp. 21–37.
• Weil, Douglas S., and Rebecca C. Knox, “Effects of Limiting Handgun Purchase on Interstate Transfer of Firearms,” JAMA, Vol. 275, No. 22, 1996, pp. 1759–1761.
• Weisburd, D., S. Bushway, C. Lum, and S.-M. Yang, “Trajectories of Crime at Places: A Longitudinal Study of Street Segments in the City of Seattle,” Criminology, Vol. 42, No. 2, 2004, pp. 283–321.
• Weisburd, D., and J. E. Eck, “What Can Police Do to Reduce Crime, Disorder, and Fear?” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 593, No. 1, 2004, pp. 42–65.
• Welsh, B. C., and D. P. Farrington, “Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis,” Justice Quarterly, Vol. 26, 2009, pp. 716–745.
• Wiebe, Douglas J., “Homicide and Suicide Risks Associated with Firearms in the Home: A National Case-Control Study,” Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 41, No. 6, 2003, pp. 771–782.
• WikiArms, homepage, undated. As of December 11, 2020: https://www.wikiarms.com
• Wilcox, P., and J. E. Eck, “Criminology of the Unpopular: Implications for Policy Aimed at Payday Lending Facilities,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2011, pp. 473–482.
• Wintemute, Garen J., Ring of Fire: The Handgun Makers of Southern California, Sacramento, Calif.: Violence Prevention Research Program, 1994.
• Wintemute, Garen J., Marian E. Betz, and Megan L. Ranney, “Yes, You Can: Physicians, Patients, and Firearms,” Annals of Internal Medicine, Vol. 165, No. 3, 2016, pp. 205–213.
• Wintemute, G. J., D. Hemenway, D. Webster, G. Pierce, and A. A. Braga, “Gun Shows and Gun Violence: Fatally Flawed Study Yields Misleading Results,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 100, No. 10, 2010, pp. 1856–1860.
• Wintemute, G. J., C. A. Parham, J. J. Beaumont, M. Wright, and C. Drake, “Mortality Among Recent Purchasers of Handguns,” New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 341, No. 21, 1999, pp. 1583–1589.
• Wintemute, Garen J., Carrie A. Parham, Mona A. Wright, James J. Beaumont, and Christiana M. Drake, “Weapons of Choice: Previous Criminal History, Later Criminal Activity, and Firearm Preference Among Legally Authorized Young Adult Purchasers of Handguns,” Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1998, pp. 155–160.
• Wintemute, Garen J., Veronica A. Pear, Julia P. Schleimer, Rocco Pallin, Sydney Sohl, Nicole Kravitz-Wirtz, and Elizabeth A. Tomsich, “Extreme Risk Protection Orders Intended to Prevent Mass Shootings: A Case Series,” Annals of Internal Medicine, August 2019.
• Wooldridge, J. M., Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002.
• World Health Organization, Preventing Suicide: A Global Imperative, Geneva, 2014.
• World Health Organization, World Health Organization Mortality Database, Geneva, 2017. As of October 13, 2017: http://apps.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/mortality/causeofdeath_query/start.php
• Wright, Alexandra, Katherine E. Smith, and Mark Hellowell, “Policy Lessons from Health Taxes: A Systematic Review of Empirical Studies,” BMC Public Health, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2017.
• Wright, James D., and Peter H. Rossi, Armed and Considered Dangerous: A Survey of Felons and Their Firearms, New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1986.
• Wright, M. A., and G. J. Wintemute, “Felonious or Violent Criminal Activity that Prohibits Gun Ownership Among Prior Purchasers of Handguns: Incidence and Risk Factors,” Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, Vol. 69, No. 4, 2010, pp. 948–955.
• Wright, M. A., G. J. Wintemute, and B. E. Claire, “People and Guns Involved in Denied and Completed Handgun Sales,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2005, pp. 247–250.
• Wright, M. A., G. J. Wintemute, and B. E. Claire, “Gun Suicide by Young People in California: Descriptive Epidemiology and Gun Ownership,” Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 43, No. 6, 2008, pp. 619–622.
• Wright, Mona A., Garen J. Wintemute, and Frederick P. Rivara, “Effectiveness of Denial of Handgun Purchase to Persons Believed to Be at High Risk for Firearm Violence,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 89, No. 1, 1999, pp. 88–90.
• Wu, Eric Q., Lizheng Shi, Howard Birnbaum, Teresa Hudson, and Ronald Kessler, “Annual Prevalence of Diagnosed Schizophrenia in the USA: A Claims Data Analysis Approach,” Psychological Medicine, Vol. 36, No. 11, 2006, pp. 1535–1540.
• Xue, Xiaonan, Mimi Y. Kim, Tao Wang, Mark H. Kuniholm, and Howard D. Strickler, “A Statistical Method for Studying Correlated Rare Events and Their Risk Factors,” Statistical Methods in Medical Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2017, pp. 1416–1428.
• Yablon, Alex, “Use of Red Flag Laws Varies Widely Among Local Police,” The Trace, April 23, 2019.
• Zawitz, Marianne W., Guns Used in Crime, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ-148201, 1995.
• Zeoli, April M., Shannon Frattaroli, Kelly Roskam, and Anastasia K. Herrera, “Removing Firearms from Those Prohibited from Possession by Domestic Violence Restraining Orders: A Survey and Analysis of State Laws,” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2019, pp. 114–125.
• Zeoli, April M., Alexander McCourt, Shani Buggs, Shannon Frattaroli, David Lilley, and Daniel W. Webster, “Analysis of the Strength of Legal Firearms Restrictions for Perpetrators of Domestic Violence and Their Associations with Intimate Partner Homicide,” American Journal of Epidemiology, Vol. 187, No. 11, 2018, pp. 2365–2371.
• Zeoli, April M., and Jennifer K. Paruk, “Potential to Prevent Mass Shootings Through Domestic Violence Firearm Restrictions,” Criminology and Public Policy, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 129–145.
• Zeoli, A. M., and D. W. Webster, “Effects of Domestic Violence Policies, Alcohol Taxes and Police Staffing Levels on Intimate Partner Homicide in Large U.S. Cities,” Injury Prevention, Vol. 16, No. 2, 2010, pp. 90–95.
• Zimmerman, Paul R., “The Deterrence of Crime Through Private Security Efforts: Theory and Evidence,” International Review of Law and Economics, Vol. 37, 2014, pp. 66–75.
• Zimring, Franklin E., “Firearms and Federal Law: The Gun Control Act of 1968,” Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1975, pp. 133–198.

View the full project bibliography