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Persuasive speeches need strong evidence to convince skeptical listeners. Research shows that evidence will be most convincing when it is stated in specific rather than general terms. ©Leon Neal/Getty Images on listeners to draw, on their own, the conclusion you want them to reach.8 When View this excerpt from “Saving using evidence, be sure listeners understand the point you are trying to make. Lives with Motorcycle Helmets” in the online Media Library for this Notice, for example, how the speaker in Video 17.3 drives home the point of his chapter (Video 17.3). evidence about the rate of motorcycle fatalities in comparison to automobile fatalities: logos The name used by Aristotle for According to the Governors Highway Safety Association, last year there the logical appeal of a speaker. were more than 5,000 motorcycle deaths in the United States. That’s a The two major elements of logos jump of 9 percent from the previous year. If 5,000 people dead doesn’t are evidence and reasoning. sound like a lot, consider this: Over the past 15 years, motorcycle deaths have doubled, while automobile deaths have dropped by 23 percent. Here in Wisconsin alone, 114 people died last year. That’s a 34 percent increase from the year before. Clearly, we can do more to solve the problem. Here in Wisconsin, there’s an easy solution: We can save lives simply by requiring that all motorcyclists wear a helmet. Evidence is one element of what Aristotle referred to as logos—the logical appeal of a speaker. The other major element of logos is reasoning, which works in combi- nation with evidence to help make a speaker’s claims persuasive. Reasoning The story is told about Hack Wilson, a hard-hitting outfielder for the B rooklyn Dodgers baseball team in the 1930s.9 Wilson was a great player, but he had a fondness for the good life. His drinking exploits were legend- ary. He was known to spend the entire night on the town, stagger into the Reasoning 325 checklist Evidence YES NO 1. Are all my major claims supported by evidence? 2. Do I use sufficient evidence to convince my audience of my claims? 3. Is my evidence stated in specific rather than general terms? 4. Do I use evidence that is new to my audience? 5. Is my evidence from credible, unbiased sources? 6. Do I identify the sources of my evidence? 7. Is my evidence clearly linked to each point that it is meant to prove? 8. Do I provide evidence to answer possible objections the audience may have to my position? team’s hotel at the break of dawn, grab a couple hours sleep, and get to the ballpark just in time for the afternoon game. This greatly distressed Max Carey, Wilson’s manager. At the next team meeting, Carey spent much time explaining the evils of drink. To prove his point, he stood beside a table on which he had placed two glasses and a plate of live angleworms. One glass was filled with water, the other with gin—Wilson’s favorite beverage. With a flourish Carey dropped a worm into the glass of water. It wriggled happily. Next Carey plunged the same worm into the gin. It promptly stiffened and expired. A murmur ran through the room, and some players were obviously impressed. But not Wilson. He didn’t even seem interested. Carey waited a little, hoping for some delayed reaction from his wayward slugger. When none came, he prodded, “Do you follow my reasoning, Wilson?” “Sure, skipper,” answered Wilson. “It proves that if you drink gin, you’ll never get worms!” reasoning And what does this story prove? No matter how strong your evidence, you will not The process of drawing a be persuasive unless listeners grasp your reasoning. conclusion on the basis of evidence. Reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion based on evidence. Sometimes we reason well—as when we conclude that ice particles forming on the trees may mean the roads will be slippery. Other times we reason less effectively—as when we conclude that spilling salt will bring bad luck. Most superstitions are actually no more than instances of faulty reasoning. Reasoning in public speaking is an extension of reasoning in other aspects of life. As a public speaker, you have two major concerns with respect to reasoning. First, you must make sure your own reasoning is sound. Second, you must try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning. Let us look, then, at four basic methods of reasoning and how to use them in your speeches. 326 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion Reasoning is an important part of persuasive speaking. Depending on the situation, a speaker may reason from specific instances, from principle, analogically, or causally. ©Pablo Martinez Monsivais/AP Images REASONING FROM SPECIFIC INSTANCES When you reason from specific instances, you progress from a number of particular facts to a general conclusion.10 For example: Fact 1: My physical education course last term was easy. Fact 2: My roommate’s physical education course was easy. Fact 3: My brother’s physical education course was easy. Conclusion: Physical education courses are easy. As this example suggests, we use reasoning from specific instances daily, reasoning from specific although we probably don’t realize it. Think for a moment of all the general conclu- instances sions that arise in conversation: Politicians are corrupt. Professors are bookish. Reasoning that moves from Dorm food is awful. Where do such conclusions come from? They come from particular facts to a general observing particular politicians, professors, dormitories, and so on. conclusion. The same thing happens in public speaking. The speaker who concludes that unethical banking practices are common in the United States because several major banks have been guilty of fraud in recent years is reasoning from specific instances. So is the speaker who argues that anti-Semitism is increasing on college campuses because there have been a number of attacks on Jewish students and symbols at schools across the nation. Such conclusions are never foolproof. No matter how many specific instances you give (and you can give only a few in a speech), it is always possible that an exception exists. Throughout the ages people observed countless white swans in Europe without seeing any of a different color. It seemed an undeniable fact that all swans were white. Then, in the 19th century, black swans were discovered in Australia!11 Reasoning 327 When you reason from specific instances, beware of jumping to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence. Make sure your sample of specific instances is large enough to justify your conclusion. Also make sure the instances you present are fair, unbiased, and representative. (Are three physical education courses enough to conclude that physical education courses in general are easy? Are the three courses typical of most physical education courses?) Finally, reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony. Because you can never give enough specific instances in a speech to make your conclusion irrefutable, you should supplement them with testimony or statistics demonstrating that the instances are representative. reasoning from principle REASONING FROM PRINCIPLE Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific Reasoning from principle is the opposite of reasoning from specific instances. It conclusion. moves from the general to the specific.12 When you reason from principle, you prog- ress from a general principle to a specific conclusion. We are all familiar with this kind of reasoning from statements such as the following: 1. All people are mortal. 2. Socrates is a person. 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. This is a classic example of reasoning from principle. You begin with a general state- ment (“All people are mortal”), move to a minor premise (“Socrates is a person”), and end with a specific conclusion (“Socrates is mortal”). Speakers often use reasoning from principle when trying to persuade an a udience. One of the clearest examples from American history is Susan B. Anthony’s famous speech “Is It a Crime for a U.S. Citizen to Vote?” Delivered on numerous occasions in 1872 and 1873, at a time when women were legally barred from voting, Anthony’s speech reasoned along the following lines: 1. The United States Constitution guarantees all U.S. citizens the right to vote. 2. Women are U.S. citizens. 3. Therefore, the United States Constitution guarantees women the right to vote. This argument progresses from a general principle (“The United States Constitution guarantees all U.S. citizens the right to vote”) through a minor premise (“Women are U.S. citizens”) to a conclusion (“Therefore, the United States Constitution guar- antees women the right to vote”). When you use reasoning from principle in a speech, pay special attention to your general principle. Will listeners accept it without evidence? If not, give evidence to support it before moving to your minor premise. You may also need to support your minor premise with evidence. When both the general principle and the minor premise are soundly based, your audience will be much more likely to accept your conclusion. CAUSAL REASONING There is a patch of ice on the sidewalk. You slip, fall, and break your arm. You reason as follows: “Because that patch of ice was there, I fell and broke my arm.” This is an example of causal reasoning, in which someone tries to establish the relationship between causes and effects. 328 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion As with reasoning from specific instances, we use causal reasoning daily. Some- causal reasoning thing happens and we ask what caused it to happen. We want to know the causes of Reasoning that seeks to chronic fatigue syndrome, of the football team’s latest defeat, of our roommate’s establish the relationship peculiar habits. We also wonder about effects. We speculate about the consequences between causes and effects. of chronic fatigue syndrome, of the star quarterback’s leg injury, of telling our room- mate that a change is needed. As any scientist (or detective) will tell you, causal reasoning can be tricky. The relationship between causes and effects is not always clear. For example, the fact that one event happens after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the sec- ond. The closeness in time of the two events may be entirely coincidental. If a black cat crosses your path and five minutes later you fall and break your arm, you needn’t blame your accident on the poor cat. You also need to beware of assuming that events have only one cause. In fact, most events have several causes. What causes the economy to boom or bust? Interest rates? Gas prices? Tax policy? Labor costs? Consumer confidence? World affairs? All these factors—and others—affect the economy. When you use causal reasoning, be wary of the temptation to attribute complex events to single causes. ANALOGICAL REASONING When arguing from analogy, a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for one case is also true for the other: For example: If you’re good at tennis, you will probably be good at Ping-Pong. Although playing Ping-Pong is not exactly the same as playing tennis, the two are analogical reasoning close enough that the speaker is on firm ground in concluding that being skilled at Reasoning in which a speaker one increases the odds of being skilled at the other. compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for Analogical reasoning is used frequently in persuasive speeches—especially when the first case is also true for the the speaker is dealing with a question of policy. When arguing for a new policy, you second. should find out whether it has been tried elsewhere. You may be able to claim that your policy will work because it has worked in like circumstances. Here is how one speaker used reasoning from analogy to support his claim that controlling handguns will reduce violent crime in the United States: Will my policy work? The experience of foreign countries suggests it will. In England, guns are tightly regulated; even the police are unarmed, and the murder rate is trivial by American standards. Japan has even fewer guns than England, and its crime rate is lower than England’s. On the basis of these comparisons, we can conclude that restricting the ownership of guns will reduce crime and murder rates in America. By the same token, if you argue against a change in policy, you should check whether the proposed policy—or something like it—has been implemented elsewhere. Here, too, you may be able to support your case by reasoning from analogy—as did one speaker who opposed gun control: Advocates of gun control point to foreign countries such as England and Japan to prove their case. But the key to low personal violence in these and other countries is the peaceful character of the people, not gun control laws. Switzerland, for example, has a militia system; more than Reasoning 329 1 million automatic rifles and military pistols are sitting at this moment in Swiss homes. Yet Switzerland’s murder rate is only one-seventh of ours. In other words, cultural factors are more important than gun control when it comes to violent crime. As these examples illustrate, argument from analogy can be used on both sides of an issue. You are more likely to persuade your audience if the analogy shows a truly parallel situation. fallacy FALLACIES An error in reasoning. A fallacy is an error in reasoning. As a speaker, you need to avoid fallacies in your speeches. As a listener, you need to be alert to fallacies in the speeches you hear. Logicians have identified more than 125 different fallacies. Here we look at 10 that you should guard against. hasty generalization Hasty Generalization A fallacy in which a speaker Hasty generalization is the most common fallacy in reasoning from specific jumps to a general conclusion instances. It occurs when a speaker jumps to a conclusion on the basis of too few on the basis of insufficient cases or on the basis of atypical cases. For example: evidence. College dropouts always make excellent business leaders. Just look at Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Steve Jobs. They all dropped out and went on to create powerful companies. Zuckerberg, Gates, and Jobs are widely regarded as outstanding corporate exec- utives, but are these examples enough to conclude that college dropouts always make excellent business leaders? In fact, they are not. There are countless college dropouts who did not go on to lead successful companies. In fact, the vast majority of business leaders did graduate from college. An accurate statement would be: Some college dropouts have gone on to make excellent business leaders—including Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Steve Jobs. This statement is factually correct and avoids the fallacy of hasty generalization. false cause False Cause A fallacy in which a speaker The fallacy of false cause is often known by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo propter hoc, mistakenly assumes that which means “after this, therefore because of this.” In other words, the fact that one because one event follows event occurs after another does not mean that the first is the cause of the second. another, the first event is the The closeness in time of the two events may be entirely coincidental—as in this case: cause of the second. When a team from the NFC wins the Super Bowl, economic growth during the next year is stronger than when a team from the AFC wins the Super Bowl. Therefore, if we want economic growth, we should root for a team from the NFC to win this year’s Super Bowl. There may be a slight correlation between economic growth and which conference wins the Super Bowl, but there is no causal connection between the two events. Whether the American economy rises or falls is not dependent on the outcome of the Super Bowl. 330 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion In addition to using evidence to support their ideas, effective persuasive speakers rely on research to help them avoid fallacies that may undermine their credibility and persuasiveness. ©Peter Muller/Getty Images Invalid Analogy As we saw earlier, when reasoning from analogy, a speaker concludes that what is true in one case is also true in another. An invalid analogy occurs when the two cases being compared are not essentially alike. For example: Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so must employees. This statement is obviously fallacious. No one in his or her right mind can seriously invalid analogy think that employees, which are human beings, can be compared with inanimate An analogy in which the two objects such as nails. cases being compared are not essentially alike. But what about the following statement: In Great Britain, the general election campaign for prime minister lasts about a month. Surely we can do the same with the U.S. presidential e lection. At first glance, this analogy may seem perfectly sound. But are the British and A merican political systems enough alike to warrant the conclusion? Not really. The United States is much larger than Great Britain and its party system operates much differently. As a result, the factors that allow Great Britain to conduct campaigns for prime minister in a month are not present in the United States. The analogy is not valid. As this example suggests, determining whether an analogy is valid or invalid is not always easy, but doing so is important for speakers and listeners alike. Bandwagon How often have you heard someone say, “It’s a great idea—everyone agrees with it”? This is a classic example of the bandwagon fallacy, which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable. Reasoning 331 bandwagon Much advertising is based on the bandwagon fallacy. The fact that more people A fallacy which assumes that use Tylenol than Advil does not prove that Tylenol is a better painkiller. Tylenol’s because something is popular, popularity could be due to clever marketing. The question of which product does a it is therefore good, correct, or better job reducing pain is a medical issue that has nothing to do with popularity. desirable. The bandwagon fallacy is also evident in political speeches. Consider the follow- ing statement: The governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60 percent of the people support him. This statement is fallacious because popular opinion cannot be taken as proof that an idea is right or wrong. Remember, “everyone” used to believe that the world is flat and that space flight is impossible. red herring Red Herring A fallacy that introduces an The name of this fallacy comes from an old trick used by farmers in England to keep irrelevant issue to divert fox hunters and their hounds from galloping through the crops. By dragging a attention from the subject smoked herring with a strong odor along the edge of their fields, the farmers could under discussion. throw the dogs off track by destroying the scent of the fox. A speaker who uses a red herring introduces an irrelevant issue to divert atten- tion from the subject under discussion. For instance: How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the United States. What does the speaker’s concern about the quality of life in the United States have to do with whether he or she is guilty of political corruption? Nothing! It is a red herring used to divert attention away from the real issue. ad hominem Ad Hominem A fallacy that attacks the Latin for “against the man,” ad hominem refers to the fallacy of attacking the person person rather than dealing with rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute. For instance: the real issue in dispute. The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family. By impugning the commissioner’s family background rather than dealing with the substance of her economic proposals, the speaker is engaging in an ad hominem attack. Sometimes, of course, a person’s character or integrity can be a legitimate issue—as in the case of a police chief who violates the law or a corporate president who swindles stockholders. In such cases, a speaker might well raise questions about the person without being guilty of the ad hominem fallacy. Either-Or Sometimes referred to as a false dilemma, the either-or fallacy forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist. For example: The government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor. 332 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion This statement oversimplifies a complex issue by reducing it to a simple either-or either-or choice. Is it true that the only choices are to raise taxes or to eliminate services for A fallacy that forces listeners to the poor? A careful listener might ask, “What about cutting the administrative cost choose between two of government or eliminating pork-barrel projects instead?” alternatives when more than two alternatives exist. You will be more persuasive as a speaker and more perceptive as a listener if you are alert to the either-or fallacy. Slippery Slope slippery slope The slippery slope fallacy takes its name from the image of a boulder rolling uncon- A fallacy which assumes that trollably down a steep hill. Once the boulder gets started, it can’t be stopped until it taking a first step will lead to reaches the bottom. subsequent steps that cannot be prevented. A speaker who commits the slippery slope fallacy assumes that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a second step and so on down the slope to disaster—as in the following example: Now that everyone is texting, posting on social media, and sending video messages, it’s only a matter of time before people forget how to write complete sentences and the whole English language falls apart. If a speaker claims that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a series of disas- trous later steps, he or she needs to provide evidence or reasoning to support the claim. To assume that all the later steps will occur without proving that they will is to commit the slippery slope fallacy. Appeal to Tradition appeal to tradition Appeal to tradition is fallacious when it assumes that something old is automatically A fallacy which assumes that better than something new. For example: something old is automatically better than something new. I don’t see any reason to abolish the electoral college. It has been around since the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1789, and we should keep it as long as the United States continues to exist. There are good arguments on both sides of the debate over abolishing the electoral college. However, to conclude that the electoral college should be kept forever solely because it has always been a part of the U.S. Constitution commits the fallacy of appeal to tradition. Just because a practice, an institution, or an idea is old does not automatically make it better. Its value should be based on its contributions to society, not on its age. If tradition were the sole measure of value, we would still have slavery, women would not be able to vote, and people would undergo surgery without anesthesia. Appeal to Novelty appeal to novelty The fallacy of appeal to novelty is the opposite of appeal to tradition. Appeal to nov- A fallacy which assumes that elty assumes that because something is new, it is therefore superior to something that something new is automatically is older. For example: better than something old. Our church should adopt the updated New International Version of the Bible because it is 400 years newer than the King James Version. Reasoning 333 The fact that the New International Version of the Bible is newer than the King James Version (completed in 1611) does not automatically make it better. There are many reasons why a church might prefer the New International Version, but the speaker should explain those reasons, rather than assuming that one version is better than another simply because it is new. Advertisers often commit the fallacy of appeal to novelty. They tout their latest products as “new and improved,” yet we know from experience that new does not necessarily mean improved. As always, we need to look carefully at the claim and make sure it is based on sound reasoning.13 Appealing to Emotions Effective persuasion often requires emotional appeal. As the Roman rhetorician Quintilian stated, “It is feeling and force of imagination that make us eloquent.”14 By adding “feeling” and the “force of imagination” to your logical arguments, you can become a more compelling persuasive speaker. pathos WHAT ARE EMOTIONAL APPEALS? The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of Emotional appeals—what Aristotle referred to as pathos—are intended to make listen- communication refer to as ers feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like. emotional appeal. These are often appropriate reactions when the question is one of value or policy. As George Campbell wrote in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, “When persuasion is the end, passion also must be engaged.”15 Using public speaking in your CAREER As the service manager for a local home improvement company’s management team, you listen as one company, you have been pleased to see your company executive argues in opposition. Among his points are expand its size and scope, but you don’t want that growth to come at the expense of cus the following: (1) If your plan is adopted, customers tomer service. In particular, you’re worried will expect more and more special services about losing touch with one of the compa and eventually will demand free installation of ny’s key demographics—women, who make flooring and carpeting. (2) Because a majority up 55 percent of your customer base. of the management team opposes your plan, it To prevent this from happening, you must not be a good idea. (3) One of your have developed a plan for a competitors tried a customer service plan range of personalized services specifically for women, but it did not targeted at women, including succeed; therefore, your plan is doomed one-on-one teaching of do-it- to failure. yourself skills and free in- In your response to the exec home consultations. utive, you will point out the fallacy in each of his points. What are When you present your those fallacies? plan at a meeting of the ©Antonio Diaz/123RF 334 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion Emotional appeals often make a speech more compelling, as in these remarks by Congress woman Tulsi Gabbard at a ceremony honoring U.S. Filipino veterans of World War II. ©Tom Williams/Getty Images Following is a list of some of the emotions evoked most often by public speak- ers. After each emotion are a few examples of subjects that might stir that emotion: ■■ Fear—of serious illness, of natural disasters, of sexual assault, of personal rejec- tion, of economic hardship. ■■ Compassion—for war refugees, for battered women, for neglected animals, for starving children, for victims of cancer. ■■ Pride—in one’s country, in one’s family, in one’s school, in one’s ethnic heritage, in one’s personal accomplishments. ■■ Anger—at terrorists and their supporters, at business leaders who act unethically, at members of Congress who abuse the public trust, at landlords who exploit student tenants, at vandals and thieves. ■■ Guilt—about not helping people less fortunate than ourselves, about not consid- ering the rights of others, about not doing one’s best. ■■ Reverence—for an admired person, for traditions and institutions, for one’s deity. There are many other emotions and many other subjects that might stir them. How- ever, this brief sample should give you an idea of the kinds of emotional appeals you might use to enhance the message of your persuasive speech. GENERATING EMOTIONAL APPEAL Appealing to Emotions 335 Use Emotional Language As we saw in Chapter 12, using emotion-laden words is one way to generate emo- tional appeal. Here, for instance, is part of the conclusion from a student speech about the challenges and rewards of working as a volunteer teacher: The promise of America sparkles in the eyes of every child. Their dreams are the glittering dreams of America. When those dreams are dashed, when innocent hopes are betrayed, so are the dreams and hopes of the entire nation. It is our duty—to me, it is a sacred duty—to give all children the chance to learn and grow, to share equally in the American dream of freedom, justice, and opportunity. The underlined words and phrases have strong emotional power, and in this case they produced the desired effect. Be aware, however, that packing too many emotion- ally charged words into one part of a speech can call attention to the emotional lan- guage itself and undermine its impact. The emotion rests in your audience, not in your words. Even the coldest facts can touch off an emotional response if they strike the right chords in a listener. Develop Vivid Examples Often a better approach than relying on emotionally charged language is to let emo- tional appeal grow naturally out of the content of your speech. The most effective way to do this is with vivid, richly textured examples that pull listeners into the speech. Here is how one speaker used a vivid example for emotional appeal. She was speaking about the malaria epidemic in Africa. Here is what she might have said, stripping the content of emotional appeal: Malaria is one of the biggest problems facing Africa. Many die from it every day. If the rest of the world doesn’t help, the malaria epidemic will only get worse. What she actually said went something like this: View this excerpt from “The Nathan was only five years old when the fever struck him. At first, no Tragedy of Malaria” in the online one knew what was wrong. No one knew that parasites inside his body Media Library for this chapter had infected his red blood cells. No one knew those cells were clumping (Video 17.4). together, choking the flow of blood through his body and damaging his vital organs. No one knew his kidneys would soon fail and seizures would begin. No one knew he would wind up in a coma. The parasites in Nathan’s body came from a mosquito bite, a bite that gave him malaria. And Nathan is not alone. The World Health Organization tells us the horrible truth: In Africa, a child dies from malaria every 30 s econds. People who listen to a speech like that will not soon forget it. They may well be moved to action—as the speaker intends. The first speech, however, is not nearly as compelling. Listeners may well nod their heads, think to themselves “good idea”— and then forget about it. The story of Nathan and his tragic fate gives the second speech emotional impact and brings it home to listeners in personal terms. Speak with Sincerity and Conviction Ronald Reagan was one of the most effective speakers in U.S. history. Even people who disagreed with his political views often found him irresistible. Why? Partly because he seemed to speak with great sincerity and conviction. What was true for Reagan is true for you as well. The strongest source of emo- tional power is your conviction and sincerity. All your emotion-laden words and examples are but empty trappings unless you feel the emotion yourself. And if you 336 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion Emotional language and vivid examples can help generate emotional appeal, but neither will be effective unless the speaker talks with genuine sincerity and conviction. ©Lisa Lake/Getty Images do, your emotion will communicate itself to the audience through everything you say and do—not only through your words, but also through your tone of voice, rate of speech, gestures, and facial expressions. ETHICS AND EMOTIONAL APPEAL Appealing to Emotions 337 Much has been written about the ethics of emotional appeal in speechmaking. Some people have taken the extreme position that ethical speakers should avoid emotional appeal entirely. To support this view, they point to speakers who have used emo- tional appeal to fan the flames of hatred, bigotry, and fanaticism. There is no question that emotional appeals can be abused by unscrupulous speakers for detestable causes. But emotional appeals can also be wielded by honor- able speakers for noble causes—by Winston Churchill to rouse the world against Adolf Hitler and the forces of Nazism, by Martin Luther King to call for racial jus- tice. Few people would question the ethics of emotional appeal in these instances. Nor is it always possible to draw a sharp line between reason and emotional appeal. Think back to the story of Nathan, the five-year-old boy who was infected with malaria. The story certainly has strong emotional appeal. But is there anything unreasonable about it? Or is it irrational for listeners to respond to it by donating to antimalarial causes? By the same token, is it illogical to be compassionate for victims of natural disasters? Angered by corporate wrongdoing? Fearful about cutbacks in student aid? Reason and emotion often work hand in hand. One key to using emotional appeal ethically is to make sure it is appropriate to the speech topic. If you want to move listeners to act on a question of policy, emo- tional appeals are not only legitimate but perhaps necessary. If you want listeners to do something as a result of your speech, you will probably need to appeal to their hearts as well as to their heads. On the other hand, emotional appeals are usually inappropriate in a persuasive speech on a question of fact. Here you should deal only in specific information and logic. Suppose someone charges your state governor with illegal campaign activities. If you respond by saying “I’m sure the charge is false because I have always admired the governor,” or “I’m sure the charge is true because I have always disliked the governor,” then you are guilty of applying emotional criteria to a purely factual question. Even when trying to move listeners to action, you should never substitute emo- tional appeals for evidence and reasoning. You should always build your persuasive speech on a firm foundation of facts and logic. This is important not just for ethical reasons, but for practical ones as well. Unless you prove your case, careful listeners will not be stirred by your emotional appeals. You need to build a good case based on reason and kindle the emotions of your audience.16 When you use emotional appeal, keep in mind the guidelines for ethical speech- making discussed in Chapter 2. Make sure your goals are ethically sound, that you are honest in what you say, and that you avoid name-calling and other forms of abu- sive language. In using emotional appeal, as in other respects, your classroom speeches will offer a good testing ground for questions of ethical responsibility. View “Changing Lives Through the Sample Speech with Commentary Literacy Network” in the online Media Library for this chapter The following speech deals with a question of policy and is organized according to (Video 17.5). Monroe’s motivated sequence. As you read the speech, notice how the speaker uti- lizes the methods of persuasion discussed in this chapter as she moves through each step of the motivated sequence. The speech also shows how a speaker’s delivery can enhance the impact of her or his ideas, as you can see by watching Video 17.5. Changing Lives Through the Literacy Network <<< <<< COMMENTARY SPEECH The first step in Monroe’s motivated sequence is Imagine being dropped into a foreign country—a country gaining attention, which the speaker accomplishes where you can’t read the street signs, can’t order food from a with a vivid hypothetical example that she ties menu, can’t fill out a job application. You’re surrounded by directly to her audience through the use of “you” scribbles and squiggles that simply don’t make sense. Now and “your.” imagine that that country isn’t a foreign one, but your own. A real-life example shows that the opening That’s exactly what people like Dwayne MacNamara experi- hypothetical example is not far-fetched. Poignant ence on a daily basis. A father of two daughters, Dwayne has and memorable, the example introduces Dwayne struggled with reading and writing for years. These struggles MacNamara, who will appear again later in the made it difficult for him to find a job, to take care of his fam- speech. ily, and to develop a positive self-image. “Not being able to read and write as well as other people,” Dwayne says, “has 338 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion taken a life-long toll on my confidence and my ability to make sound decisions.” Here the speaker reveals the topic of her speech Dwayne is far from alone in dealing with these problems. and shows that low literacy is a local as well as a Low literacy affects millions of adults throughout the United national problem. States, including right here in Madison and Dane County. The speaker establishes her credibility by citing For the past year, I’ve been volunteering at the Literacy Net- her personal experience with the Literacy Network. work—a local, Madison-based, nonprofit organization that She ends the introduction by stating her central helps adults and families with reading, writing, and speaking idea and previewing the body of her speech. skills. I’ve seen the problems people face because of low liter- acy, and I’ve also seen how improved literacy can change peo- The speaker moves into the need step of Monroe’s ple’s lives for the better. Today I’d like to encourage you to motivated sequence, in which she explains the join me as a volunteer. But first let’s look more closely at low problem of low adult literacy. adult literacy and the problems it can cause. A combination of statistics and expert testimony According to a 2012 report from the U.S. Department of Edu- documents the extent of low adult literacy. The cation and National Research Council, more than 30 million speaker uses high-quality evidence and clearly adults in the United States lack basic literacy skills. Another cites her sources. 60 million have only basic skills, but little beyond that. This paragraph builds upon the previous one by When you add these two groups together, 90 million people— showing the many challenges facing adults who more than 40 percent of the adult population—have trouble have low literacy skills. reading the newspaper, understanding instructions from a doctor, registering to vote, or reading a lease for a place to By moving from the national level to the local level, live. As the National Commission on Adult Literacy states, this paragraph shows how low adult literacy we face an “adult education crisis that permeates every aspect affects the immediate community. of American life.” As in this case, testimony from a personal The problem is even worse when you consider the social con- interview can be an excellent way to reinforce a sequences of low adult literacy. According to a report from speaker’s ideas. the American Institutes for Research, 42 percent of people with less-than-basic literacy skills live in poverty. Adults with The question at the start of this paragraph signals low literacy are less likely to participate in the workforce, to that the speaker is moving to the satisfaction assist with their children’s education, and be involved in their section of her speech. Notice how clearly she community. explains the range of services provided by the Literacy Network. Here in Madison we are not immune to these challenges. The Literacy Network estimates that 17,000 people in Dane County lack “the functional literacy skills needed to read a letter from their children’s teacher, a label in a grocery store, or instructions from a doctor.” Another 38,000 don’t know English well enough to perform these tasks. When I interviewed Jeff Burkhart, Executive Director of the Literacy Network, he told me that “even though we live in a university town, thousands of people still struggle with every- day literacy skills necessary for success.” So what can you and I do to help combat the problem of low adult literacy? One option is to volunteer at the Literacy Net- work. It offers a range of services that include basic skills of reading and writing, learning English as a second language, even math and health skills. Best of all, all these services are free. Individuals and families pay absolutely nothing to receive help. Sample Speech with Commentary 339 The speaker encourages her classmates to join her But the Literacy Network can only offer its services for free if as a volunteer at the Literacy Network. She it has enough volunteers—and that’s where you come in. provides options for her listeners by noting a Whatever your skill set, the Literacy Network has a way for number of ways in which they can contribute. you to help. You can join me as a tutor and help improve people’s writing, speaking, and reading skills. If tutoring In this paragraph and the next, the speaker doesn’t sound right for you, you can help with data entry, addresses the audience’s possible hesitations fundraising, or scheduling. There are also positions for pho- about volunteering. By relating her own tographers and those with computer skills. experiences as a new volunteer, she personalizes her ideas and gives them added credibility. If you volunteer as a tutor, you don’t need prior experience, teaching certification, or fluency in another language. You’ll Whenever a speaker asks listeners to donate time attend a training seminar at which the staff will show you to a cause, it is important to show how they can fit exactly what to do. I have to admit: I was a little nervous during the volunteer activities into their schedules. my first training seminar. But it calmed my nerves and helped me understand exactly what I was doing. Then, when I met my Having explained her plan and its practicality, the adult learner for the first time, I was ready to get started. speaker moves into the visualization section. Returning to the example of Dwayne MacNamara But, you may be asking, how much time does it take to be a gives the speech a sense of unity and shows the literacy tutor? The usual commitment is two hours a week. It concrete benefits provided by the Literacy Network. can be before class, after class, during lunch, on the week- ends—whatever works best for you. You can even pick the An instance of peer testimony, the quotation from place. I meet my learner in a study room at Memorial Library. MacNamara is particularly effective. It’s a convenient spot for both of us. As you can see from the video, the sincerity and Whether you volunteer as a tutor or in some other capacity, directness of the speaker’s delivery add to her you will change the lives of people who have suffered for far persuasiveness. too long. Remember Dwayne MacNamara, who I mentioned in my introduction? He lives here—in Madison. Because of The speaker moves into the action section. Once the Literacy Network, he now works at a home-improvement again she addresses her classmates directly as “you.” store, where reading instructions and dealing with customers is essential. The Literacy Network’s motto provides a perfect vehicle for the speaker’s closing appeal. Dwayne is also able for the first time to help his kids with their homework. He even reads to them every night before 340 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion bed. “The Literacy Network gave me the skills I needed to succeed,” Dwayne says. “I have become more confident, and I am more motivated and excited to go forward with life.\" Dwayne’s experience is matched by many others. Here are some brochures you can take a look at after my speech. They are filled with success stories from people here in Madison whose lives have been changed through literacy. So I hope you will join me as a volunteer. You can help some- one’s life go from isolation and despair to a life of progress and promise. “Improving Lives Through Literacy”—that’s the motto of the Literacy Network. It’s a motto I’ve seen come to life over the past year. And it’s a motto I hope you see for yourself by becoming a volunteer. Thank you. Summary Listeners accept a speaker’s ideas for one to four reasons—because they perceive the speaker as having high credibility, because they are won over by the speaker’s evidence, because they are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning, and because they are moved by the speaker’s emotional appeals. Credibility is affected by many factors, but the two most important are competence and character. The more favorably listeners view a speaker’s competence and character, the more likely they are to accept her or his ideas. Although credibility is partly a matter of reputation, you can enhance your credibility during a speech by establishing com- mon ground with your listeners, by letting them know why you are qualified to speak on the topic, and by presenting your ideas fluently and expressively. If you hope to be persuasive, you must also support your views with evidence— examples, statistics, and testimony. Regardless of what kind of evidence you use, it will be more persuasive if it is new to the audience, stated in specific rather than general terms, and from credible sources. Your evidence will also be more persuasive if you state explicitly the point it is supposed to prove. No matter how strong your evidence, you will not be persuasive unless listeners agree with your reasoning. In reasoning from specific instances, you move from a num- ber of particular facts to a general conclusion. Reasoning from principle is the reverse— you move from a general principle to a particular conclusion. When you use causal reasoning, you try to establish a relationship between causes and effects. In analogical reasoning, you compare two cases and infer that what is true for one is also true for the other. Whatever kind of reasoning you use, avoid fallacies such as hasty generalization, false cause, invalid analogy, appeal to tradition, and appeal to novelty. You should also be on guard against the red herring, slippery slope, bandwagon, ad hominem, and either-or fallacies. Finally, you can persuade your listeners by appealing to their emotions. One way to generate emotional appeal is by using emotion-laden language. Another is to develop vivid, richly textured examples. Neither, however, will be effective unless you feel the emotion yourself and communicate it by speaking with sincerity and conviction. As with other methods of persuasion, your use of emotional appeal should be guided by a firm ethical rudder. Although emotional appeals are usually inappropriate in speeches on questions of fact, they are legitimate—and often necessary—in speeches that seek immediate action on questions of policy. Even when trying to move listeners to action, however, you should never substitute emotional appeals for evidence and reasoning. Key Terms creating common ground (320) evidence (322) ethos (318) logos (325) credibility (319) reasoning (326) initial credibility (319) reasoning from specific instances (327) derived credibility (319) terminal credibility (319) Key Terms 341 reasoning from principle (328) red herring (332) causal reasoning (329) ad hominem (332) analogical reasoning (329) either-or (333) fallacy (330) slippery slope (333) hasty generalization (330) appeal to tradition (333) false cause (330) appeal to novelty (333) invalid analogy (331) pathos (334) bandwagon (332) Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What is credibility? What two factors exert the most influence on an audience’s perception of a speaker’s credibility? 2. What are the differences among initial credibility, derived credibility, and terminal credibility? 3. What are three ways you can enhance your credibility during your speeches? 4. What is evidence? Why do persuasive speakers need to use evidence? 5. What are four tips for using evidence effectively in a persuasive speech? 6. What is reasoning from specific instances? Why is it important to supplement reasoning from specific instances with testimony or statistics? 7. What is reasoning from principle? How is it different from reasoning from specific instances? 8. What is causal reasoning? Why is the relationship between causes and effects not always clear? 9. What is analogical reasoning? Why is analogical reasoning frequently used in persuasive speeches on questions of policy? 10. What are the ten logical fallacies discussed in this chapter? 11. What is the role of emotional appeal in persuasive speaking? Identify three methods you can use to generate emotional appeal in your speeches. Exercises for Critical Thinking 1. Research has shown that a speaker’s initial credibility can have great impact on how the speaker’s ideas are received by listeners. Research has also shown that a speaker’s credibility will vary from topic to topic and audience to audience. In the left-hand column is a list of well-known public figures. In the right-hand column is a list of potential speech topics. Assume that each speaker will be addressing your speech class. For each speaker, identify the topic in the right-hand column on which she or he would have the highest initial credibility for your class. Then explain how the speaker’s initial credibility might be affected if the speaker were discussing the topic in the right-hand column directly across from her or his name. 342 CHAPTER 17 Methods of Persuasion Speaker Topic Jessica Chastain The Future of E-commerce Michelle Obama Trends in Country Music Jeff Bezos The Royal Family and Modern Britain Keith Urban Life after the White House Prince William Women in Film 2. Identify the kind of reasoning used in each of the following statements. What weaknesses, if any, can you find in the reasoning of each? a. T he U.S. Constitution prohibits cruel and unusual punishment. Life sentencing for juvenile offenders is cruel and unusual punishment. Therefore, life sentencing for juvenile offenders is contrary to the U.S. Constitution. b. We can see from its work all around the world that Women for Women International is a worthy charitable organization. It has helped women in Rwanda operate sewing machines and make clothing. It has given women in Kosovo the skills to operate businesses in their communities. It has shown women in the Democratic Republic of Congo how to create and market ceramics. c. According to a study by the National Institutes of Health, children with gluten sensitivity have a three times greater risk of developing scoliosis than children without gluten sensitivity. We can see, then, that gluten sensitivity is the cause of scoliosis. d. Portugal decriminalized the use of drugs two decades ago, and now drug- related deaths are extremely rare. If decriminalization can work in Portugal, it can work in the United States. 3. Over the years there has been much debate about the role of emotional appeal in public speaking. Do you believe it is ethical for public speakers to use emotional appeals when seeking to persuade an audience? Do you feel there are certain kinds of emotions to which an ethical speaker should not appeal? Why or why not? Be prepared to explain your ideas in class. 4. Analyze the sample speech with commentary at the end of this chapter (“Changing Lives Through the Literacy Network,” pages 338–340). Pay special attention to the speaker’s credibility, evidence, reasoning, and emotional appeal. In addition to reading the text, view the speech on Video 17.5 so you can assess the speaker’s delivery and its impact on her persuasiveness. Exercises for Critical Thinking 343 18 Speaking on Special Occasions Speeches of Introduction Speeches of Presentation Speeches of Acceptance Commemorative Speeches S pecial occasions are the punctuation marks of day-to-day life, the high points that stand out above ordinary routine. Christenings, weddings, funerals, graduations, award ceremonies, inaugurals, retirement dinners— all these are occasions, and they are very special to the people who take part in them. Nearly always they are occasions for speechmaking. A close friend proposes a toast to the bride and groom; the sales manager presents an award to the sales representative of the year; a family member delivers a moving eulogy to the deceased. These speeches help give the occasion its “specialness.” They are part of the ceremonial aura that marks the event. Speeches for special occasions are different from the speeches we have considered so far in this book. They may convey information or persuade, but that is not their primary purpose. Rather, they aim to fit the special needs of a special occasion. In this chapter we look at the most common special occa- sions and the kinds of speeches appropriate for each. speech of introduction Speeches of Introduction A speech that introduces the main speaker to the audience. “Distinguished guests, the President of the United States.” If you are ever in a situa- tion in which you have to introduce the president, you will need no more than the eight words that begin this paragraph. The president is so well known that any fur- ther remarks would be inappropriate and almost foolish. Most of the time, however, a speech of introduction will be neither this brief nor this ritualized. If you are introducing another speaker, you will need to accomplish three purposes in your introduction: Build enthusiasm for the upcoming speaker. Build enthusiasm for the speaker’s topic. Establish a welcoming climate that will boost the speaker’s credibility. 344 ©Araya Diaz/Getty Images A good speech of introduction can be a delight to hear and can ease the task of the main speaker. Usually you will say something about the speaker and the topic—in that order. Following are some guidelines for speeches of introduction. Be Brief During World War I, Lord Balfour, Great Britain’s foreign secretary, was to be the main speaker at a rally in the United States. But the speaker introducing him gave a 45-minute oration on the causes of the war. Then, almost as an afterthought, he said, “Now Lord Balfour will give his address.” Lord Balfour rose and said, “I’m supposed to give my address in the brief time remaining. Here it is: 10 Carleton Gardens, L ondon, England.”1 Everyone who has ever sat through a long-winded introduction knows how dreary it can be. The purpose of a speech of introduction is to focus attention on the main speaker, not on the person making the introduction. A speech of introduction will usually be no more than two to three minutes long, and may be shorter if the speaker is already well known to the audience. Make Sure Your Remarks Are Completely Accurate Many an introducer has embarrassed himself or herself, as well as the main speaker, by garbling basic facts. Always check with the speaker ahead of time to make sure your introduction is accurate in every respect. Above all, get the speaker’s name right. If the speaker’s name is at all difficult— especially if it involves a foreign pronunciation—practice saying it in advance. How- ever, don’t practice so much that you frighten yourself about getting it wrong. This was the plight of an announcer whose gaffe is now a classic: “Ladies and gentlemen, the President of the United States—Hoobert Heever!” Adapt Your Remarks to the Occasion In preparing your introduction, you may be constrained by the nature of the occa- sion. Formal occasions require formal speeches of introduction. If you were present- ing a guest speaker at an informal business meeting, you might be much more casual than at a formal banquet. Adapt Your Remarks to the Main Speaker No matter how well it is received by the audience, a speech of introduction that leaves the main speaker feeling uncomfortable has failed in part of its purpose. How can you make a main speaker uncomfortable? One way is to overpraise the person— especially for his or her speaking skills. Never say, “Our speaker will keep you on the edge of your seat from beginning to end!” You create a set of expectations that are almost impossible to fulfill. Another way to create discomfort is by revealing embarrassing details of the speaker’s personal life or by making remarks that are in poor taste. An introducer may think this line is funny: “Why, I’ve known Anita Fratello since she was 10 years old and weighed so much that everybody called her Blimpo!” To the speaker, how- ever, the statement will probably not be a bit funny and may be painful. Adapt Your Remarks to the Audience Just as you adapt other speeches to particular audiences, so you need to adapt a speech of introduction to the audience you are facing. Your aim is to make this 346 CHAPTER 18 Speaking on Special Occasions audience want to hear this speaker on this subject. If the speaker is not well known to the audience, you will need to establish her or his credibility by recounting some of the speaker’s main achievements and explaining why she or he is qualified to speak on the topic at hand. But if the speaker is already personally known to the audience, it would be absurd to act as if the audience had never heard of the person. Also, you will want to tell each audience what it wants to hear—to give the kind of information that is interesting and accessible to the members of that audience. If you were introducing the same speaker to two different groups, some of the informa- tion in the speeches of introduction might be the same, but it would be slanted differently. Suppose, for example, that tennis player Serena Williams is going to address two groups—an elementary-school assembly and the annual meeting of the United States Tennis Association. The introduction to the school assembly might go like this: Children, today we have a very special guest. She is the most famous women’s tennis player in the world. Many of you have probably seen her on TV. She started playing tennis when she was four years old—younger than all of you. Today, she’s going to talk to us about her life in tennis and how you, too, can become great at whatever you love if you are willing to work hard enough. Let’s give a big round of applause to Serena Williams. But the introduction to the United States Tennis Association would be along these lines: Ladies and gentlemen, it is my privilege to introduce to you a tennis legend. You’ve been watching her play for over twenty years. Few of us can forget her early matches against Steffi Graf, her seven Wimbledon championships, her twenty-three Grand Slam singles titles, or her four Olympic gold medals. The story of how she climbed to the top of our sport is well known. After starting the game at age four, she turned professional when she was four- teen and, along with her older sister Venus, quickly emerged as a rare talent and a fierce competitor. But nothing comes without struggle. In addition to the on-court compe- tition, she has dealt with off-court issues such as mental fatigue, health scares that nearly ended her career, and debates over women, race, and body image. And, of course, she’s now a mother as well. Today, she’s going to talk to us about playing through the struggles of life and remain- ing resilient in the face of adversity. I also hope she’ll give us some point- ers on perfecting our backhands! Please give a warm welcome to Serena Williams. Try to Create a Sense of Anticipation and Drama You may have noticed one detail shared by the two speeches introducing Serena Williams: In both cases the speaker’s name was saved for last. This is a convention in speeches of introduction. While there may occasionally be a good reason to break the convention, usually you will avoid mentioning the speaker’s name until the final moment—even when the audience knows exactly whom you are discussing. By doing this you build a sense of drama, and the speaker’s name comes as the climax of your introduction. Speeches of Introduction 347 Often you will find yourself in the situation of introducing someone who is fairly well known to the audience—a classmate, a colleague at a business meeting, a neigh- bor in a community group. Then you should try to be creative and cast the speaker in a new light. Talk to the speaker beforehand and see if you can learn some interest- ing facts that are not generally known—especially facts that relate to the speaker’s topic. Above all, if you expect to be creative and dramatic, be sure to practice your speech of introduction thoroughly. You should be able to deliver it extemporane- ously, with sincerity and enthusiasm. Speeches of Presentation Speeches of presentation are given when someone receives a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition. Usually such speeches are brief. They may be no more than a mere announcement (“And the winner is . . .”) or be up to four or five minutes in length. PRESENTING THE NATIONAL TEACHER OF THE YEAR AWARD Barack Obama Welcome to the White House, everybody. . . . Here with us are 55 of America’s top teachers, from as far away as Alaska and American Samoa and as close as Mary- land and Washington, D.C. I wish I could talk about each and every one of them. But in the interest of time, I’ll just say a few words about one teacher in particular, who happens to be the 2015 National Teacher of the Year, from Amarillo, Texas, Shanna Peeples. . . . Shanna teaches English at Palo Duro High School in Amarillo. Many of her students face challenges that would overwhelm adults, let alone kids. About 85 percent are considered economically disadvantaged. Many are refugees from places like Iraq and Somalia. Many of them have known trauma and violence in their lives, and borne burdens that no kid should have to bear. Sometimes just showing up to school is hard. But Shanna’s classroom provides them a safe haven. And in Shanna, they find somebody who protects them fiercely and believes in them deeply, and sets high expectations and is confident that they’re going to do amazing things. . . . Since Shanna arrived at Palo Duro five years ago, the number of kids taking the AP English III exam has doubled. This year, 30 students are taking the AP English IV exam. Before Shanna arrived, the number was exactly zero. . . . She often uses the tale of Hansel and Gretel to finish the school year. It’s a story, she says, of how we can be our own heroes—find our way out of the forest. Shanna’s students have gone on to the Ivy League. They’ve won prestigious schol- arships. But more importantly, many have just found their way out of the forest into new and better chapters of their lives. They’ve figured out a way to carve a path for themselves, in large part because of her. . . . And with that, let me present the Teacher of the Year—Shanna Peeples. 348 CHAPTER 18 Speaking on Special Occasions Speeches for special occasions are part of the ceremonial aura that makes an event special, as in these remarks by Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau welcoming the Royal Tour to Victoria, British Columbia. ©Samir Hussein/Getty Images The main purpose of a speech of presentation is to tell the audience why the speech of presentation recipient is receiving the award: to point out his or her contributions, achievements, A speech that presents and so forth. Do not deal with everything the person has ever done. Focus on someone a gift, an award, or achievements related to the award, and discuss these achievements in a way that will some other form of public make them meaningful to the audience. recognition. Depending on the audience and the occasion, you may also need to discuss two other matters in a speech of presentation. First, if the audience is not familiar with the award, you should explain it briefly. Second, if the award was won in a public competition and the audience knows who the losers are, you might take a moment to praise the losers. On page 348 is a sample speech of presentation. It was presented by President Barack Obama when giving the 2015 National Teacher of the Year award to Shanna Peeples, an English teacher at Palo Duro High School in Amarillo, Texas. Because the Teacher of the Year ceremony recognized exemplary teachers from every state, Obama acknowledged the larger group before turning to the national honoree. His speech focused on Shanna’s ability to help students realize their dreams by overcom- ing the many challenges they face. Speeches of Acceptance The purpose of an acceptance speech is to give thanks for a gift or an award. When giving such a speech, you thank the people who are bestowing the award and recog- nize the people who helped you gain it. Speeches of Acceptance 349 acceptance speech The acceptance speech below is the companion piece to the speech of presenta- A speech that gives thanks for tion by Barack Obama. It was delivered by Shanna Peeples in accepting the National a gift, an award, or some other Teacher of the Year Award, and it exemplifies the major traits of a good acceptance form of public recognition. speech—brevity, humility, and graciousness.2 ACCEPTING THE NATIONAL TEACHER OF THE YEAR AWARD Shanna Peeples Thank you, Mr. President. I am honored to stand here today. As a teacher of refu- gee students, I have been privileged to teach public education through the eyes of students from countries as diverse as Burma, Somalia, Iraq, and Cuba. Being here today makes me think of my student Lar Bway. She was a shy teenage girl who had little formal schooling and much suffering in her native Burma. One day a snowstorm shut down the entire city of Amarillo, but Lar Bway set off trudging toward the school in blizzard conditions clutching a backpack full of homework. Her friends had to find her and convince her that school was indeed closed. “But how is that possible?” she asked them. “School is always open, like the hospital. . . .” For Lar Bway, school was special. We were her beacon, her stability, her source of inspiration, dreaming, and hope. This is the commitment that Amer- ica and its schools offer all of our students. We will be here and we will help you. This is no easy promise, and that is why so many families send us their most valuable resource, their children. They trust us to teach them no matter their abili- ties, behaviors, or financial situations. School is the place where so many of us learned to dream, where we began the groundwork of our futures. Schools and their teachers are a stabilizing force in society and a fierce promoter and protector of our democracy. Public schools help us to find the most treasured things any of us have: per- sonal meaning and our contribution to the common good. Public schools must always stay open because teachers’ doors stay open, saying “Come in, let’s learn, let’s hope.” Let’s begin dreaming. Thank you. commemorative speech Commemorative Speeches A speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an Commemorative speeches are speeches of praise or celebration. Eulogies, Fourth of institution, or an idea. July speeches, and dedications are examples of commemorative speeches. Your aim in such speeches is to pay tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea. As in an informative speech, you probably will have to give the audience infor- mation about your subject. After all, the audience must know why your subject is praiseworthy. As in other speeches, you may draw on examples, testimony, even sta- tistics to illustrate the achievements of your subject. 350 CHAPTER 18 Speaking on Special Occasions Your fundamental purpose in a commemorative speech, however, is not to inform your listeners but to inspire them—to arouse and heighten their appreciation of or admiration for the person, institution, or idea you are praising. If you are paying tribute to a person, for example, you should not simply recount the details of the person’s life. Rather, you should penetrate to the essence of your subject and generate in your audience a deep sense of respect. When speaking to commemorate, you want to express feelings, to stir sentiments— joy and hope when a new building is dedicated, anticipation and good wishes at a commencement celebration, lament and consolation at a funeral, admiration and respect at a testimonial dinner. A commemorative speech is like an impression- ist painting—“a picture with warm colors and texture capturing a mood or a moment.”3 But while the painter works with brush and colors, the commemorative speaker works with language. Of all the kinds of speeches, none depends more on the cre- ative and subtle use of language. Some of the most memorable speeches in history, including Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address,” have been commemorative. We continue to find such speeches meaningful and inspiring largely because of their eloquent use of language. One of the most effective commemorative speakers in American history was President Ronald Reagan. After the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger in 1986, Reagan delivered a nationally televised eulogy to the astronauts killed in the blast. Following are two versions of Reagan’s closing lines. The first is what he might have said, stripping the text of its warm emotional content and poignant language: Like Francis Drake, the great explorer of the oceans, the Challenger astronauts gave their lives for a cause to which they were fully dedicated. We are honored by them, and we will not forget them. We will always remember seeing them for the last time this morning as they prepared for their flight. Here is what Reagan actually said: There’s a coincidence today. On this day 390 years ago, the great explorer Francis Drake died aboard ship off the coast of Panama. In his lifetime the great frontiers were the oceans, and an historian later said, “He lived by the sea, died on it, was buried in it.” Well, today we can say of the Challenger crew: Their dedication was, like Drake’s, complete. The crew of the space shuttle Challenger honored us by the manner in which they lived their lives. We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and “slipped the surly bonds of earth” to “touch the face of God.”4 The final words—“‘slipped the surly bonds of earth’ to ‘touch the face of God’”— are especially effective. Drawn from a sonnet called “High Flight” that many pilots keep with them, they ennoble the deaths of the astronauts and end the speech on an eloquent, moving, and poetic note. When speaking to commemorate, your success will depend on your ability to put into language the thoughts and emotions appropriate to the occasion. It is Commemorative Speeches 351 View “Make a Wish” in the online easy—too easy—to fall back on clichés and trite sentiments. Your challenge will be to Media Library for this chapter use language imaginatively to invest the occasion with dignity, meaning, and honest (Video 18.1). emotion. View “Ida B. Wells” in the online In doing so, you may want to utilize the special resources of language discussed Media Library for this chapter in Chapter 12. Metaphor, simile, parallelism, repetition, antithesis, alliteration— (Video 18.2). all are appropriate for commemorative speeches. Some highly acclaimed commemo- rative speeches—including Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” and John Kenne- dy’s inaugural address—are distinguished by their creative use of such devices. Confronted with the evocative speeches of a Kennedy or a King, you may decide that the speech of commemoration is far beyond your abilities. But other students have delivered excellent commemorative speeches—not immortal, perhaps, but none- theless dignified and moving. Look, for example, at “Make a Wish” in the appendix of sample speeches that follows Chapter 20. The speaker’s aim was to pay tribute to one of the most respected charities in the United States. Although the speaker provides basic information about the Make-A-Wish foundation and its programs, she does not present a history of the organization. Instead, she focuses on its generosity, selflessness, and healing. She gives enough detail to let us see why Make-A-Wish is commendable, but not so much as to slow the pace of the speech. The speaker also uses several of the language devices discussed in Chapter 12 to provide the kind of formal tone appropriate for a commemorative speech. You can see this in the following passage, about the volunteers who help Make-A-Wish fulfill the dreams of children in need: The volunteers aren’t just politicians and superstars. They’re the people behind the scenes orchestrating the visits and vacations. They’re the counselors who help these kids identify their most heartfelt wishes. They’re the office workers who enter data, answer phones, and finalize details. Make-A-Wish has 25,000 active volunteers who give their time to help kids like my sister. That’s selflessness. These lines have an elegance that comes not only from their ideas but also from their use of parallelism, repetition, and vivid language. Consider, in contrast, how much less effective the passage would have been if the speaker had said: Make-A-Wish depends on the selflessness of many volunteers, includ- ing support staff and counselors, plus office workers and others. These lines convey the same ideas, but not with the same effect. For another example, consider the student commemorative speech printed on page 353. The subject is Ida B. Wells, a pioneering civil rights activist who spoke, wrote, and fought against the injustices of her time. Notice the crispness and clarity of the speaker’s language and how she begins and ends each main point in parallel fashion. The speaker tells us enough about Wells to know why she is praiseworthy without getting bogged down with details more appropriate for an informative speech. 352 CHAPTER 18 Speaking on Special Occasions IDA B. WELLS Frederick Douglass, Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther King. All three were champions of civil rights and racial justice. But there’s another name that should ring just as loudly as these famous figures; another name that should roll off the tongue of every student in this country: Ida B. Wells. Wells stares at us out of the past—her eyes strong, her face resolute, her mind made up. Although Wells lived long ago—from 1862 to 1931—her contributions to society persist. Today, I commemorate her for those contributions: for the courage to stand up, for the courage to speak up, for the courage to stay up. Ida B. Wells had the courage to stand up—to stand up for herself and for equality under the law. Born in muggy Mississippi in the dark days of the Civil War, Wells faced segregation every day, but she refused to accept it. In 1883 she bought a first-class ticket for a train ride from Memphis to Nashville. Even though she paid just as much as the white, first-class passengers, and had already taken her seat, crew members told her to move to the crowded, run-down smoking car reserved for blacks. When she refused and stayed in her seat, she was dragged away and forcibly removed from the train. Seventy years before Rosa Parks ignited the civil rights movement by refusing to give up her bus seat, Wells stood up for equality—also by staying seated. Ida B. Wells also had the courage to speak up—to speak up for her friends and for justice. With powerful pen and soaring voice, she denounced the injustices of segregation. Her primary platform was the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight, the newspaper of which she was editor and part-owner. In 1892, while Wells was living in Memphis, three of her friends were lynched by a white mob. In her paper, she condemned the lynching and the mob who carried it out. Afraid of the power of her pen, another mob destroyed her newspa- per office in an effort to silence her. It didn’t work. Like the great abolitionist speaker and writer Frederick Douglass, Wells lent her voice to the cause of justice regardless of opposition. Finally, Ida B. Wells had the courage to stay up—to stay up and keep fighting for future generations. Because of her commitment to equality and justice, she created organizations that would long outlive her. To champion the right of women to vote, she helped create the first suffrage organization for African-American women. To unite African-American women in common purpose, she helped create the National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs. To advance civil rights for all African Americans, she helped create an orga- nization I’m sure you’ve heard of—the NAACP. Just as Dr. Martin Luther King created civil rights organizations that would continue long after his death, Wells brought people together for lasting change. Ida B. Wells. I hope it’s a name you will remember alongside Frederick Douglass, Rosa Parks, and Dr. Martin Luther King. For her courage to stand up for equality, for her courage to speak up for justice, for her courage to stay up for all of us, Wells deserves recognition and respect. As she stares at us out of the past, her undaunted gaze serves as a reminder that the quest for justice cannot be abandoned. Commemorative Speeches 353 Speeches for special occasions should invest the occasion with dignity, meaning, and honest emotion. Here Blair Underwood speaks at the MegaFest International Faith and Family Film Festival. ©Cooper Neill/Getty Images Summary In this chapter we have considered speeches of introduction, speeches of presentation, speeches of acceptance, and commemorative speeches. Your job in a speech of introduction is to build enthusiasm for the main speaker and to establish a welcoming climate. Keep your remarks brief, make sure they are accu- rate, and adapt them to the audience, the occasion, and the main speaker. Speeches of presentation are given when someone receives a gift or an award. The main theme of such a speech is to acknowledge the achievements of the recipient. The purpose of an acceptance speech is to give thanks for a gift or an award. When delivering such a speech, you should thank the people who are bestowing the award and recognize the contributions of people who helped you gain it. Be brief, humble, and gracious. Commemorative speeches are speeches of praise or celebration. Your aim in such a speech is to pay tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea. A commemorative speech should inspire the audience, and its success will depend largely on how well you put into language the thoughts and feelings appropriate to the occasion. Key Terms acceptance speech (350) commemorative speech (350) speech of introduction (344) speech of presentation (349) 354 CHAPTER 18 Speaking on Special Occasions Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What are the three purposes of a speech of introduction? What guidelines should you follow in preparing such a speech? 2. What is the main theme of a speech of presentation? Depending on the audience and occasion, what two other themes might you include in such a speech? 3. What are the three major traits of a good acceptance speech? 4. What is the fundamental purpose of a commemorative speech? Why does a successful commemorative speech depend so much on the creative and subtle use of language? Exercises for Critical Thinking 1. Attend a speech on campus. Pay special attention to the speech introducing the main speaker. How well does it fit the guidelines discussed in this chapter? 2. Observe several speeches of presentation and acceptance—at a campus awards ceremony or on a show such as the Academy Awards, Grammy Awards, or Emmy Awards. Which speeches do you find most effective? Least effective? Why? 3. Eulogies are among the most common types of commemorative speeches. Imagine that you have been asked by family members to deliver a eulogy at the funeral for one of your grandparents. What would be your primary purpose in delivering a speech on such an occasion? What praiseworthy characteristics would you focus on in eulogizing your grandparent? How might you adapt your remarks to other family members in attendance? 4. Analyze “Ida B. Wells” (page 353) in light of the criteria for commemorative speaking presented in this chapter. Exercises for Critical Thinking 355 19 Presenting Your Speech Online The Special Nature of the Online Environment Kinds of Online Speeches Guidelines for Online Speaking The Technology of Real-Time Online Speeches Have a Backup Plan Sample Speech with Commentary T he head of a small tech start-up, Matthew Rhee was excited about his presentation later that morning. He was going to speak to librarians around the state about new online catalogue software his team was developing. The software promised to simplify the process of searching, find- ing, and even previewing library books from computers and mobile devices. Matthew was particularly excited because he could talk without leaving his apartment. His potential clients would log in to a virtual meeting room, and he would speak from his computer to people in a half-dozen cities. Having made successful speeches to in-person audiences, he was confident about the out- come. He ran through his planned remarks a couple times, but he didn’t make any special adjustments for the online speaking situation. Unfortunately, things did not go as smoothly as Matthew had expected. Because his computer was facing a window behind him, the audience had a hard time seeing his face. But they could see the clutter on his desk and the plain white T-shirt he was wearing—neither of which did much for his credibil- ity. Nor did he help himself by slouching in his chair and drinking coffee as he spoke. By the end of the presentation, many of Matthew’s listeners had either zoned out or had started checking their email. Like Matthew, lots of people underestimate the difficulty of presenting a speech online. After all, most of us regularly communicate via the Internet—in video chats, messaging platforms, even with emojis. But while online speaking may sound easy, it is actually more challenging and time-consuming than delivering an in-person speech. Why? In an online speech you have to do everything you would do for an in-person speech—and more. 356 ©Glenn Chapman/Getty Ima3g5e7s The Special Nature of the Online Environment online environment When you deliver a traditional speech, you’re in the same room as your audience. The elements of Internet You can see how many people are present. You can look them in the eye to keep communication that influence them engaged. You have multiple forms of feedback to assess how fully they are pay- an online speech, including the ing attention and how well they are grasping your message. remote audience, factors of technology, and unique forms In the online environment, you have a fundamentally different relationship with of interference. your audience. Because you’re not in the same room with them, gauging their responses can be difficult. You might not know if they begin staring out the window, checking Facebook, or reading the news online. Even if you can see the audience on your computer screen, you don’t have the same relationship with them that you would if you were personally present in the room. In fact, almost every aspect of the speech communication process can be affected by the online environment. Think, for example, about the kinds of interfer- ence you might face online. Interference can come from the physical spaces where your listeners are located—someone unexpectedly entering the room or a noise in the hallway outside. But interference can also come from the technology connecting you with your audience. A glitch might cause the connection to freeze or drop. Band- width congestion might lead to lagging video or buffering issues. Someone’s com- puter might decide to update itself in the middle of your presentation. As with other aspects of public speaking, there is no substitute for experience when it comes to online speeches. But if you follow the principles discussed in this chapter, you’ll get started in the right direction. We’ll begin by looking at two types of online speeches. Kinds of Online Speeches recorded online speech There are two major kinds of online speeches. One is recorded online speeches that A speech that is delivered, are designed primarily for viewing on the Internet. TED Talks are an example. The recorded, then uploaded to the speakers spend months creating their presentations with the help of TED advisers. Internet. On speech day, they address an in-person audience, but that audience is largely a formality. The target audience is composed of the millions of people who will access real-time online speech the talks after they are edited and uploaded to YouTube. A speech that has been created specifically for an audience Recorded online speeches can also be found in blended or online public speak- that will view it online as it is ing classes. Students make their presentations at an off-campus site and upload them being delivered. to a server where their instructor and fellow students can view the speeches later. For the most part, the speech is identical to what would have been delivered if the class were meeting on campus in a traditional bricks-and-mortar classroom. The second major kind of online speech is a real-time online speech created for an audience that will view it online as it is being delivered, often using software designed specifically for that purpose. The audience is likely to be gathered in a classroom, an office, or a conference room. The speaker is usually seated, rather than standing, and talks into a webcam located a couple feet away. The entire speech—content, delivery, visual aids—is communicated live via the webcam. As the Internet continues to influence how we communicate, odds are that you will end up giving a real-time online speech (if you haven’t already). You may need to give a brief talk of self-introduction during an online job interview. You may be required, as part of your job, to present an online training session to fellow 358 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online Unlike a recorded online speech, a real-time online presentation is seen by the remote audience as it is being delivered. To be successful, every aspect of such a speech has to be strategically adapted to the online environment. ©Colin Anderson/Getty Images employees. You may address a meeting of the school board or the city zoning com- mission from a remote location. You might, like Matthew Rhee at the start of this chapter, give a presentation to potential clients or supporters. The distinctions between recorded and real-time online speeches are not a bsolute, but they are essential to keep in mind whenever you present an online speech. If you are recording and uploading a traditional speech for remote viewing— as in an online speech class—you will prepare and present the speech largely as if you were speaking in the classroom. On the other hand, if you are talking in real time to a remote audience via a webcam, they will expect a speech that is created specifically for the online environ- ment. Such a presentation will have all the usual elements of a public speech—intro- duction, body, conclusion—with clear main points, strong supporting materials, and engaging delivery. To be successful, however, every aspect of it will have to be adapted to the fact that you are not physically present with the audience and are communicating through a webcam while the audience views the speech on a com- puter monitor or a video screen.1 Guidelines for Online Speaking Later in this chapter, we will explore some challenges unique to real-time online speaking. First, however, let’s look at guidelines for effective online presentations that are broadly applicable to both real-time and recorded online speeches. CONTROL THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT The Internet is often informal. We FaceTime with family members, post photos of our social lives to Instagram, and watch cat videos on YouTube. Online speeches, however, should not be informal. They should be as polished and professional as an Guidelines for Online Speaking 359 in-person speech. This requires, among other things, making the visual environment— what the audience sees on-screen—work for you rather than against you. Major ele- ments of the visual environment are setting, lighting, framing, eye contact, and personal appearance. visual environment Setting The on-screen elements seen by the audience during an One way to control the visual environment is to choose a setting that will communi- online speech. cate the level of professionalism needed for your speech. Find a quiet room where you will not be interrupted by traffic noise or by people coming and going. Make sure there are no posters, paintings, or knickknacks behind you that will deflect attention from your message. The same is true of clutter—cups, dishes, pens, paper, erasers, staplers, and so forth. Lighting Also pay attention to lighting. You don’t want the room to seem too dark; neither do you want so much light that it washes you out. Avoid having windows in the back- ground, as they will illuminate what is behind you while darkening your face. In general, you want a light source that will present you clearly and pleasingly. Framing Another aspect of the visual environment is knowing how to frame what the audi- ence will see. If you’re presenting a recorded online speech for class, your teacher will usually provide instructions about how the shot should be framed. In a profes- sional situation, you may have more options, including multiple cameras and post- production editing. If you’re giving a real-time online speech, questions of framing will revolve mainly around how far you sit from the webcam. If you sit too far away, you’ll seem small and removed from your listeners. If you sit too close, you’ll look like a selfie. A good rule of thumb is to sit two to three feet from the webcam so you fill most of the frame and the audience can see you from the chest up—as shown in Figure 19.1. FIGURE 19.1 Ine ective Ine ective More E ective ©Djomas/Shutterstock 360 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online Eye Contact Even though TED Talks are designed ultimately for online circulation, the speakers establish eye contact with the in-person audience, rather than with the camera. The purpose of the uploaded speech is to capture the live performance for online viewers. Much the same is true of student presentations uploaded for viewing in online or blended speech classes—though, of course, without the hefty budgets, multiple cam- eras, and professional production values of TED Talks. In contrast, real-time online speeches require that speakers make eye contact with listeners by talking directly to the webcam. This does not mean talking into the computer screen. If you do so, you’ll be looking below the webcam, which is located in the bezel above the screen (Figure 19.2). This might seem like a minor matter, but it can make a surprisingly large difference in how the audience sees you. Be sure to look directly into the webcam while you speak. Also pay attention to the height of the webcam. If you’re speaking from a laptop, avoid tilting the webcam up at your face. Instead, put the laptop on a stand or a stack of books so the webcam is aimed directly at you or is tilting slightly down toward you. The goal is to have the audience view you from a straight-on or downward angle, both of which are more flattering than an upward angle. Personal Appearance Controlling the visual environment also means taking your personal appearance seri- ously. Dress in a professional manner that will project well on-screen. Stick with solid colors, but avoid white (which is too bright on-screen) and greens and purples (which may not register accurately). Also stay away from busy patterns and glitzy FIGURE 19.2 ©McGraw-Hill Education/Michael Trevis, photographer Guidelines for Online Speaking 361 FIGURE 19.3 Ine ective More E ective ©McGraw-Hill Education prints. The more professional you look, the more professional you will feel—and the more professional you will appear to your audience. Figure 19.3 provides examples of less effective and more effective attempts to control the visual environment. In the first figure, the speaker hasn’t found an appealing backdrop, hasn’t properly framed herself on-screen, and hasn’t dressed as she would for an in-person speech. In the second figure, the speaker has overcome all these problems. There is nothing to distract the audience’s attention. ADAPT YOUR NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Your nonverbal communication is magnified dramatically when you speak via a cam- era of any kind. Gestures, facial expressions, eye movements—they all become more noticeable, and potentially distracting. This is something newscasters have long known. Their on-camera techniques can be especially useful if you are giving a real-time online presentation. Because much of your speech will involve sitting in front of the webcam, your posture will need to be straight, but not rigid. Your goal is to appear professional, relaxed, and confident. Well-planned and deliberate hand gestures are also important. Too many hand movements in any kind of online speech can be distracting; they can also make you seem nervous and fidgety. Concentrate on using gestures that are natural but con- trolled. As one expert in online presentations states, “The more defined your hands appear, the more defined your message will appear to your audience.”2 Also be mindful of your eyes. Experienced online presenters know the camera will magnify every eye movement. Avoid looking up at the ceiling or out the window, and make sure your eyes do not dart back and forth. Learning to speak to a camera is an acquired skill. Look into the camera and imagine yourself establishing eye con- tact with an audience right in front of you. This will help your eye movements seem deliberate, controlled, and confident. ADJUST YOUR PACING As speech consultant Cynthia Clay explains, online audiences have more ways to tune out than do in-person listeners, and the temptation to multitask is often 362 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online irresistible.3 The pacing of your speech can help keep the audience focused on you View “charity: water” in the online instead of on the temptations around them. Media Library for this chapter (Video 19.1). One way to adjust your pacing is to alter what appears on the audience’s screen; this is especially important the longer a speech becomes. In a real-time presentation, it’s usually a good idea to stay on-screen early in the speech, thereby establishing a visual connection with the audience. Once you’ve established that connection, you can alternate between shots of yourself and your visual aids. For an example of how to integrate visual aids into an online speech, watch the sample speech with commentary at the end of this chapter (Video 19.1). As with an in-person speech, the aids are well designed and strategically employed, but they have the added benefit of varying the pace and keeping the audience engaged. Regardless of the length of your speech, try to keep it moving at a brisk pace. People are accustomed to a crisp tempo when watching videos of almost any kind. Make sure you explain your ideas fully enough that the audience understands your message but doesn’t get bogged down in digressions or unnecessary details. DON’T FORGET YOUR AUDIENCE This might seem like strange advice given the fact that we have referred many times to the audience throughout this chapter. Yet we know from experience that it can be difficult for speakers to keep their audience as clearly in mind when speaking online as when speaking to a group of people sitting right in front of them. This is often a special challenge for students enrolled in an online speech class. They may never be in the same location as their classmates and may deliver all their speeches without an audience being physically present. As a result, it’s easy for them to think that they don’t have an audience at all. But if you are in such a class, you do have an audience—your classmates and your instructor. Even though they will view your speeches remotely, your aim is still to communicate with them, just as you would if you were speaking in a classroom. When preparing your speeches, follow the principles of audience analysis and adaptation discussed in Chapter 6. Consider conducting an online audience a nalysis survey using SurveyMonkey or a similar program. This will give you a picture of your listeners’ interest in, knowledge about, and attitudes toward your speech topic. Also keep in mind the notion of public speaking as a mental dialogue between speaker and audience, which we discussed in Chapter 16 (see pages 294–295). Try to anticipate how your listeners will respond to your ideas. Think about how you can structure your speech, phrase your remarks, and use supporting materials to make your audience care about what you have to say. In short, you may be recording your speech for remote viewing, but you still need to keep the public in public speaking.4 PRACTICE, PRACTICE, PRACTICE No matter what kind of online speech you give, the audience will assess your perfor- mance somewhat differently than if they were watching an in-person speech. We are accustomed to seeing highly polished performances on TED Talks, newscasts, and other programs, and we have come to expect polished performances in other video speech presentations, too. Because the camera is less forgiving than the naked eye, you will need more rehearsal time for an online speech than for an in-person presentation. Guidelines for Online Speaking 363 As with any other kind of speech, online presentations need careful planning and preparation. Feedback from friends, family, or colleagues can help you avoid pitfalls and smooth out rough spots. ©Stock Rocket/Shutterstock In Chapter 13, we looked at a five-step method for rehearsing speech delivery. All of those steps apply to online speeches. Here are some additional tips. Practicing Recorded Online Speeches If you are presenting a recorded online speech, it only makes sense to record your practice sessions so you can gauge what the audience will see on their end. Try to practice in the location where you will deliver the speech, and keep in mind every- thing we discussed earlier in this chapter about controlling the visual environment. Some instructors ask students to deliver their recorded online speeches to an imaginary audience in the room with them. If that’s the case, you’ll need to visualize people in front of you. You can accomplish this by setting up a few chairs and put- ting a sticky note on each to represent a person. When you’re speaking, address those sticky notes as you would actual people. It might seem strange at first, but it will look right on video, and it will demonstrate your delivery skills. As you practice, deliver your speech into the camera, record it, and play it back. This will allow you to check your framing, hear your voice, gauge your eye contact, assess your visual aids, and see yourself through your audience’s eyes. Make the nec- essary adjustments and record the speech again until you’re happy with the final result. Practicing Real-Time Online Speeches In a real-time online speech, you will usually be seated within a few feet of the web- cam, and you will appear on your audience’s screens from the chest up. You want to come across as poised, confident, and professional. Yet, as many people have discov- ered, this is quite a bit more daunting in the close-up visual environment of a real- time online speech than in a traditional in-person speech, with its physical distance between speaker and audience. 364 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online Most everything we have said about practicing recorded online speeches applies as well to real-time speeches. Also consider the following: First, be sure to practice with the computer and the presentation software you will use on the day of your speech. Take time to master all the computer commands so you can execute them flawlessly. Second, use the screen recording function of your presentation software to help you assess what your audience will see and hear on their end. Open the video pre- view window, record your speech using the webcam, and play it back. Keep practic- ing until you feel confident that the speech is ready to go. Another option is to deliver the speech remotely to family or friends and ask for their suggestions. Third, while rehearsing, work on getting your computer ready for speech day. Update your software and operating system to the most stable release (you don’t want the computer trying to install updates during your speech!). Get in the habit of closing programs such as email and messaging clients that you won’t need while you’re speaking. Also, turn off all notification sounds so your audience isn’t startled by a sudden “ding!” in the middle of your presentation. How much rehearsal is required for a real-time online speech? For business situ- ations, Webinar expert Elizabeth Frick recommends beginning practice two weeks in advance.5 You may not have that much time for class speeches, but don’t skimp on your practice sessions. It’s almost always true that online speeches require more rehearsal than do in-person speeches. checklist Presenting an Online Speech YES NO 1. Have I considered the special nature of the online speech environment? 2. Do I understand the differences between recorded and real-time online speeches? 3. Do I control the visual environment of my presentation so it will work to my advantage? 4. Have I adapted my nonverbal communication so it will be effective when viewed online? 5. Will the pacing of my speech keep the audience focused on my message? 6. Have I carefully considered my online audience and adapted my speech to them? 7. Have I taken all the steps necessary to practice my online speech? 8. Have I learned the online presentation software appropriate for my speech? 9. Do I have a backup plan in case I encounter technical problems? Guidelines for Online Speaking 365 The Technology of Real-Time Online Speeches Unlike when you speak to an in-person audience, an online speech requires the use of technology. In most speech classes, the instructor will stipulate the technology for recorded online speeches. However, for real-time online speeches—especially outside the classroom—you will have to choose and learn a software program designed spe- cifically for such speeches. Here are some pointers to help you. CHOOSING THE SOFTWARE There are a number of software programs designed for real-time online speeches— WebEx, GoToMeeting, Skype, Zoom, Adobe Connect, and Google Hangouts, to name a few of the most popular. Beyond the basic function of allowing you to speak to people in remote loca- tions, these programs have different features that may be more or less applicable to your presentation. Some let you combine audio and video with visual aids. Others allow you to see, hear, and chat with your audience. Still others provide more advanced functionality, such as real-time polling and document collaboration. The technology for real-time online classroom speeches is usually determined by the instructor. Skype is often a popular pick because it’s free, allows for some amount of screen and document sharing, is relatively easy to use, and is available on mobile devices as well as computers. If you’re delivering an online speech for a non-classroom setting—as part of a job interview, for example—you may need to use the software specified by your audience. If you don’t already have the software on your computer, you’ll have to install it and familiarize yourself with it far enough in advance that you can operate it perfectly during your speech. In most cases, the group you’re speaking to will have a contact person with whom you can verify details about the choice of software. LEARNING THE SOFTWARE Once the choice of software has been made, give yourself plenty of time to master it. One of the quickest ways to destroy your credibility is to fuss and fumble when oper- ating the software. If you need help, you can find numerous tutorials online for Skype, WebEx, Google Hangouts, and other programs. In addition to connecting with your listeners, most online presentation software allows for more advanced functionality. If your speech includes visual aids, for exam- ple, you’ll need to know how to switch smoothly between showing yourself and showing the visual aids. In Skype, you can switch to your visual aids by clicking “Share Screen.” After you’ve shared some visuals, you can switch back to showing yourself by clicking “Stop Sharing Screen.” Have a Backup Plan Have you ever run into problems logging on to a Web site? Encountered server errors? Waited impatiently for a video to buffer? All these things can play havoc with a real-time online presentation. No matter how much time speakers invest in master- ing the technology at their end, they can still be undermined by technological glitches at the audience’s end. 366 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online Whether you are presenting an online speech for class or for another situation, you need to support your ideas with clear, convincing supporting materials and to develop a backup plan in case you face technological glitches. This is why experts recommend that you always have a backup plan in case the technology fails. For a real-time online presentation your backup plan might include one or more of the following: ■■ Distribute an outline of your speech via email. ■■ Move the speech to an audio-only conference call. ■■ Share the text of your speech through a document collaboration program such as Google Docs and invite your audience to comment on the text. ■■ Turn your real-time online speech into a recorded speech, capturing it first on your computer, then uploading it to a video-sharing Web site such as YouTube for your audience to view later. ■■ Reschedule the speech once the technical problems are resolved. Because we have all been sabotaged by technology at one time or another, audi- ences usually have sympathy for a speaker who encounters such problems. Having a backup plan will make you look conscientious and considerate. Sample Speech with Commentary The following speech demonstrates how to apply the principles of online speaking View “charity: water” in the online discussed in this chapter. The assignment was to present a real-time online speech of Media Library for this chapter four to five minutes persuading the audience to support a charity of the speaker’s (Video 19.1). choice. The speech follows the guidelines for persuasive speaking discussed in C hapters 16 and 17, but it is skillfully adapted to meet the challenges of the online environment. In addition to reading the speech, you can view it on Video 19.1. As you watch, notice how the speaker has full command of the technology and uses it to integrate visual aids into her presentation. The background for the speech is uncluttered, the speaker’s delivery is well adapted to the online setting, and she communicates in a poised and professional manner. Sample Speech with Commentary 367 charity: water <<< <<< COMMENTARY SPEECH The speaker begins by making sure the audience Hi, everyone. Can you see me and hear me okay? Great. can see her and hear her. This is usually a good idea at the start of a real-time online speech. Like many speeches that seek direct action, this If you’re like me, a water bottle like this is never too far away. one follows Monroe’s motivated sequence, But there are millions of people who don’t have such a lux- beginning with the attention section. The speaker’s ury. Not the bottle—they don’t have the luxury of the water contrast between a water bottle, which she holds inside. In fact, there’s a worldwide water crisis. The World in her hand, and the water inside is especially Health Organization estimates that over two billion effective. p eople—30 percent of the world’s population—lack regular access to clean, safe drinking water. The speaker introduces charity: water, which she One way to address this crisis is to support organizations that will ask listeners to support as the speech help communities access clean water. I’m here to encourage proceeds. you to support one of those organizations—charity: water, a highly regarded charity that helps people in some of the The speaker relates to the audience as fellow poorest places around the world access clean water. college students, and she creates goodwill by emphasizing the financial responsibility of charity: Now, I know we’re all college students, and we don’t have water. lots of extra money. But one of the best things about charity: water is that every penny you contribute goes directly to help- Here the speaker moves into the need section of ing people in need. Let’s start with some basic facts about Monroe’s motivated sequence. She supports her water. argument with credible, well-chosen statistics. She varies the visual environment with a slide that The sad truth is that far too many people don’t have access to shows her statistics. clean, safe drinking water. Here’s the most recent data from the World Health Organization. More than 2 billion people To keep the visual environment dynamic, the drink water from a source contaminated with feces. Of that speaker switches back to showing herself. As you number, around 900 million don’t have access to a managed can see from the video, she has an engaging source of drinking water. And of that number, some 160 mil- delivery and maintains strong eye contact through lion have to collect their own water from untreated lakes, riv- the webcam. ers, and ponds. These numbers come with some horrific results. Contami- nated water is linked to the spread of cholera, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis, and polio. The WHO estimates that every year 850,000 people die just from diarrhea caused by unsafe drinking water. About 360,000 of those people are children under the age of five. 368 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online Now the speaker moves to the satisfaction section It’s because of these heartbreaking numbers that we ought to of Monroe’s motivated sequence. She explains support charity: water. Charity: water works with community how charity: water helps people in poor partners to build sustainable water projects in some of the communities build projects that improve the world’s poorest communities. The key to their work is con- quality of their drinking water. necting with organizations, groups, and individuals that can build and manage their own water projects. With charity: water’s help, communities can drill wells, set up rain-holding tanks, and install purification systems. Having explained her plan, the speaker enters the Most important, charity: water works. As its Web site visualization section. In this paragraph, she uses a explains, it has helped with 23,000 water projects in 24 coun- combination of statistics, brief examples, and tries, serving an estimated 7 million people. In Honduras, visual aids to show that charity: water achieves charity: water helped install a water pump so villagers didn’t concrete results. When the paragraph is over, she have to get water from the nearby river. In Rwanda, it helped returns to showing herself on-screen. dig a well so people didn’t have to drink water from a stag- nant pond. In India, it helped construct a water system to pipe clean water into town from a nearby mountain. The next two paragraphs continue the visualization Not only does charity: water complete these projects, but it section by showing that charity: water is highly does so while being financially responsible. Usually, when responsible in using the money donated to it. This you donate to a charity, a percentage of your money goes to is always an important issue to address when overhead costs and administrative work. But with charity: asking people to donate to a charity. water, private donors pay for all these costs. This means every penny you give goes to helping people in need. Knowing that listeners need evidence, the speaker But you don’t have to take my word for it. The charity-evalua- cites third-party organizations that have verified tion Web site Charity Navigator gives charity: water a four- charity: water’s accountability. star rating, the highest possible. Likewise, Give.org reports that charity: water meets or exceeds all twenty of its stan- dards for accountability. Now the speaker moves into her action section, in These are just some of the reasons we should support char- which she urges the audience to donate to charity: ity: water. Even though we’re college students and don’t have water. bundles of cash lying around, we can still make a difference. The speaker’s conclusion, like the rest of her So go to charity: water’s Web site and give five bucks, ten presentation, is strengthened by her delivery, bucks, or twenty bucks—the same amount you might spend at which is sincere, personable, and heartfelt. Starbucks or hanging out with friends this weekend. Every penny you donate will give the gift of clean water that we take for granted. Thank you. Sample Speech with Commentary 369 Summary There are two major types of online speeches. A recorded online speech is delivered, recorded, and then uploaded to the Internet for later viewing. Examples are TED Talks and presentations in online or blended speech classes. A real-time online speech is cre- ated for an audience that will view the speech on the Internet as it is being delivered—as, for instance, in a job interview, a training session, or a sales presentation. Both types of speeches must be adapted to the online environment, and both can be more challenging and time-consuming to prepare than speeches for in-person audi- ences. Challenges include controlling the visual environment, adapting your nonverbal communication, adjusting the pacing of your speech, adapting to the online audience, and rehearsing specifically for online viewing. If you’re giving a real-time online speech, you will also have to learn and master a software program designed for such events. In addition, you’ll need a backup plan in case you run into technological glitches on speech day. No matter which kind of online presentation you are going to give, keep in mind that it will require everything needed for an in-person speech—and more. Key Terms real-time online speech (358) visual environment (360) online environment (358) recorded online speech (358) Review Questions After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How does public speaking in the online environment differ from public speaking to in-person audiences? 2. What are the two major kinds of online speeches? Explain the differences between them. 3. What guidelines are given in the chapter for effective online speaking? 4. What steps can you take to control the visual environment in an online speech? 5. What technological factors should you consider when giving a real-time online speech? 6. Why is it important for online speakers to have a backup plan? 370 CHAPTER 19 Presenting Your Speech Online Exercises for Critical Thinking 1. View a TED Talk on www.TED.com. Select a speech on a topic that interests you. As you watch the speech, answer the following questions: (1) How does the speaker organize his or her talk for effective communication? (2) How does the speaker control the online environment? (3) How effective is the speaker’s delivery on your computer screen? 2. Plan to use visual aids in a real-time online speech. Follow the guidelines for preparing visual aids discussed in Chapter 14. Rehearse the speech with your visual aids using your online presentation software program. After the speech, analyze how effectively you used the aids and what changes you would make if you were to deliver the speech again. 3. Analyze the sample speech with commentary at the end of this chapter (“charity: water,” pages 368–369). View the speech in Video 19.1 so you can see the speaker’s delivery and use of visual aids. Evaluate the speech in light of the guidelines for online speaking discussed in this chapter. Exercises for Critical Thinking 371 20 Speaking in Small Groups What Is a Small Group? Leadership in Small Groups Responsibilities in a Small Group The Reflective-Thinking Method Presenting the Recommendations of the Group T he president of a medical-device company asked Noah Cox, the new head of the human resources department, to organize an October retreat for the company’s sales division. Noah went to work on setting a date, finding a place to stay, and creating an agenda for the retreat. Noah was very pleased with his plan. He thought he had taken everyone’s needs into account. But when he explained his plan at the company’s next staff meeting, no one seemed happy. “The date you set for the retreat is over Halloween,” said the marketing manager. “I know you don’t have children, but no one with kids is going to want to be away at that time.” The administrative assistant responded next. “Do you realize,” he said, “that the hotel you booked is the same one we used for a retreat five years ago? It was a disaster! The food was awful, the meeting rooms were uncom- fortable, and the tech support was nonexistent.” Next a junior member of the sales team said, “I see that all the sessions involve executives. Did you mean to exclude the younger team members? We’re the ones on the ground at the hospitals.” Finally, the vice president of product development said, “I wish you had checked with me at some point. I could have warned you about the hotel, the conflict with Halloween, and the need to include junior staff.” What went wrong? Noah did not have enough time or resources on his own to create a successful retreat. If a group, instead of a single person, had been assigned to plan the retreat, the problems might have been averted. One person could have taken charge of looking into the best dates, another of finding accommodations, a third of 372 ©Ammentorp Photography/Alamy coordinating with other staff members about who should be included in the retreat, and so forth. The plan would have taken all factors into account. Of course, you may have heard the old saying, “A camel is a horse designed by a committee.” If you have ever been part of a group that seemed to get nothing done, you may be inclined to say, “Oh, let one person decide and get it over with.” The problem in such cases, however, is not that there is a group, but that the group is not functioning properly. A great deal of research shows that if members of a group work well together, they can usually resolve a problem better than a single person.1 This chapter deals with speaking in a particular kind of group—the problem- solving small group. dyad What Is a Small Group? A group of two people. As its name implies, a small group has a limited number of members. The minimum small group number is three. (A group of two persons is called a dyad, and it operates quite dif- A collection of 3 to 12 people ferently from a group of three or more.) There is some difference of opinion about who assemble for a specific the maximum number of people who constitute a small group. Most experts set the purpose. maximum number at 7 or 8; some go as high as 12. The important point is that the group must be small enough to allow free discussion among all members. In small- problem-solving small group communication, all participants are potentially speakers and listeners. group A small group formed to solve Members of a small group assemble for a specific purpose. Several shoppers a particular problem. milling around the clothing section of a department store are not a small group, even if they speak to one another or comment about high prices and poor service. But if those same shoppers decided to meet together and prepare a formal complaint to the store manager about high prices and poor service, they would then constitute a small group. A problem-solving small group is formed to solve a particular problem. Such groups exist in every area of life. Business groups consider ways of increasing sales. Church groups discuss how to raise funds and provide for people in need. Groups of parents work on improving day-care facilities. You will almost surely be a member of many problem-solving small groups during your life. Although speaking in a small group is not the same as public speaking, it involves similar skills. Members of a small group influence one another through communication. As a participant in a small group, you might influence your col- leagues by giving them important information, by encouraging them to speak, by convincing them to change their minds, even by getting them to end a meeting of the group. All other members of the group have the same opportunity to influence you through effective communication.2 Leadership in Small Groups leadership We have said that small groups often make better decisions than do individuals. The ability to influence group To do so, however, they need effective leadership. members so as to help achieve the goals of the group. KINDS OF LEADERSHIP Sometimes there is no specific leader. In such a situation, members of effective groups tend to have equal influence. When a need for leadership arises, any of the members 374 CHAPTER 20 Speaking in Small Groups What is the visual environment of an online speech?What are the 5 major elements of visual environment of online speeches? Setting, Lighting, Framing, Eye Contact, and Personal Appearance.
What factors should you consider when you are giving an online speech?Use your voice expressively and meaningfully.. Minimize the uhs, ums, likes and y'knows.. Enunciate words clearly. Don't mumble or garble them.. Speak with appropriate loudness and speed. Consider audience, place and topic.. Use variations in speed, inflections, and force to enhance your meaning and hold audience attention.. Which of the following does your textbook recommend as a way to control the visual environment of an online speech?Which of the following does your textbook recommend for controlling the visual environment of an online speech? Clean up anything in the audience's view that could distract them.
What refers to the on screen elements seen by the audience during an online speech?Visual Environment. The on-screen elements seen by the audience during an online speech. Includes: setting, lighting, framing, eye contact, & personal appearance. Guidelines for Online Speaking. Control the Visual Environment.
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Controlling the visual environment of an online speech includes
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