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Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism, clandestine literature, idealization of nature, suspicion of science and industrialization, and glorification of the past with a strong preference for the medieval rather than the classical.[1] It was partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution,[2] the social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific rationalization of nature.[3] It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography,[4] education,[5] chess, social sciences, and the natural sciences.[6] It had a significant and complex effect on politics, with romantic thinkers influencing conservatism, liberalism, radicalism, and nationalism.[7]

Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1818

Eugène Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, taking its Orientalist subject from a play by Lord Byron

Philipp Otto Runge, The Morning, 1808

The movement emphasized intense emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as fear, horror, terror and awe — especially that experienced in confronting the new aesthetic categories of the sublime and beauty of nature.[8][9] It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, but also spontaneity as a desirable characteristic (as in the musical impromptu). In contrast to the Rationalism and Classicism of the Enlightenment, Romanticism revived medievalism[10] and elements of art and narrative perceived as authentically medieval in an attempt to escape population growth, early urban sprawl, and industrialism.

Although the movement was rooted in the German Sturm und Drang movement, which preferred intuition and emotion to the rationalism of the Enlightenment,[11] the events and ideologies of the French Revolution were also proximate factors since many of the early Romantics were cultural revolutionaries and sympathetic to the revolution.[12] Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of "heroic" individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art. There was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism.[13] The decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes.[14]

The nature of Romanticism may be approached from the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich, "the artist's feeling is his law".[15] For William Wordsworth, poetry should begin as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings", which the poet then "recollect[s] in tranquility", evoking a new but corresponding emotion the poet can then mould into art.[16]

To express these feelings, it was considered that content of art had to come from the imagination of the artist, with as little interference as possible from "artificial" rules dictating what a work should consist of. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone.[17] As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creator's own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin.[18][19][20] This idea is often called "romantic originality".[21] Translator and prominent Romantic August Wilhelm Schlegel argued in his Lectures on Dramatic Arts and Letters that the most phenomenal power of human nature is its capacity to divide and diverge into opposite directions.[22]

William Blake, The Little Girl Found, from Songs of Innocence and Experience, 1794

Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief and interest in the importance of nature. This particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. In contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment, Romantics were distrustful of the human world, and tended to believe a close connection with nature was mentally and morally healthy. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the personal voice of the artist. So, in literature, "much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves".[23]

According to Isaiah Berlin, Romanticism embodied "a new and restless spirit, seeking violently to burst through old and cramping forms, a nervous preoccupation with perpetually changing inner states of consciousness, a longing for the unbounded and the indefinable, for perpetual movement and change, an effort to return to the forgotten sources of life, a passionate effort at self-assertion both individual and collective, a search after means of expressing an unappeasable yearning for unattainable goals".[24]

Etymology

The group of words with the root "Roman" in the various European languages, such as "romance" and "Romanesque", has a complicated history. By the 18th century, European languages – notably German, French and Russian – were using the term "Roman" in the sense of the English word "novel", i.e. a work of popular narrative fiction.[25] This usage derived from the term "Romance languages", which referred to vernacular (or popular) language in contrast to formal Latin.[25] Most such novels took the form of "chivalric romance", tales of adventure, devotion and honour.[26]

The founders of Romanticism, critics August Wilhelm Schlegel and Friedrich Schlegel, began to speak of romantische Poesie ("romantic poetry") in the 1790s, contrasting it with "classic" but in terms of spirit rather than merely dating. Friedrich Schlegel wrote in his 1800 essay Gespräch über die Poesie ("Dialogue on Poetry"): "I seek and find the romantic among the older moderns, in Shakespeare, in Cervantes, in Italian poetry, in that age of chivalry, love and fable, from which the phenomenon and the word itself are derived."[27][28]

The modern sense of the term spread more widely in France by its persistent use by Germaine de Staël in her De l'Allemagne (1813), recounting her travels in Germany.[29] In England Wordsworth wrote in a preface to his poems of 1815 of the "romantic harp" and "classic lyre",[29] but in 1820 Byron could still write, perhaps slightly disingenuously, "I perceive that in Germany, as well as in Italy, there is a great struggle about what they call 'Classical' and 'Romantic', terms which were not subjects of classification in England, at least when I left it four or five years ago".[30] It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, and in 1824 the Académie française took the wholly ineffective step of issuing a decree condemning it in literature.[31]

Period

The period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place "roughly between 1770 and 1848",[32] and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, perhaps a little later than some other critics.[33] Others have proposed 1780–1830.[34] In other fields and other countries the period denominated as Romantic can be considerably different; musical Romanticism, for example, is generally regarded as only having ceased as a major artistic force as late as 1910, but in an extreme extension the Four Last Songs of Richard Strauss are described stylistically as "Late Romantic" and were composed in 1946–48.[35] However, in most fields the Romantic period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier.

The early period of the Romantic era was a time of war, with the French Revolution (1789–1799) followed by the Napoleonic Wars until 1815. These wars, along with the political and social turmoil that went along with them, served as the background for Romanticism.[36] The key generation of French Romantics born between 1795 and 1805 had, in the words of one of their number, Alfred de Vigny, been "conceived between battles, attended school to the rolling of drums".[37] According to Jacques Barzun, there were three generations of Romantic artists. The first emerged in the 1790s and 1800s, the second in the 1820s, and the third later in the century.[38]

Context and place in history

The more precise characterization and specific definition of Romanticism has been the subject of debate in the fields of intellectual history and literary history throughout the 20th century, without any great measure of consensus emerging. That it was part of the Counter-Enlightenment, a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment, is generally accepted in current scholarship. Its relationship to the French Revolution, which began in 1789 in the very early stages of the period, is clearly important, but highly variable depending on geography and individual reactions. Most Romantics can be said to be broadly progressive in their views, but a considerable number always had, or developed, a wide range of conservative views,[39] and nationalism was in many countries strongly associated with Romanticism, as discussed in detail below.

In philosophy and the history of ideas, Romanticism was seen by Isaiah Berlin as disrupting for over a century the classic Western traditions of rationality and the idea of moral absolutes and agreed values, leading "to something like the melting away of the very notion of objective truth",[40] and hence not only to nationalism, but also fascism and totalitarianism, with a gradual recovery coming only after World War II.[41] For the Romantics, Berlin says,

in the realm of ethics, politics, aesthetics it was the authenticity and sincerity of the pursuit of inner goals that mattered; this applied equally to individuals and groups—states, nations, movements. This is most evident in the aesthetics of romanticism, where the notion of eternal models, a Platonic vision of ideal beauty, which the artist seeks to convey, however imperfectly, on canvas or in sound, is replaced by a passionate belief in spiritual freedom, individual creativity. The painter, the poet, the composer do not hold up a mirror to nature, however ideal, but invent; they do not imitate (the doctrine of mimesis), but create not merely the means but the goals that they pursue; these goals represent the self-expression of the artist's own unique, inner vision, to set aside which in response to the demands of some "external" voice—church, state, public opinion, family friends, arbiters of taste—is an act of betrayal of what alone justifies their existence for those who are in any sense creative.[42]

John William Waterhouse, The Lady of Shalott, 1888, after a poem by Tennyson; like many Victorian paintings, romantic but not Romantic.

Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948); some scholars see Romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like Robert Hughes see in it the inaugural moment of modernity,[43] and some like Chateaubriand, Novalis and Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to Enlightenment rationalism—a "Counter-Enlightenment"—[44][45] to be associated most closely with German Romanticism. An earlier definition comes from Charles Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling."[46]

The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new style of Realism, which affected literature, especially the novel and drama, painting, and even music, through Verismo opera. This movement was led by France, with Balzac and Flaubert in literature and Courbet in painting; Stendhal and Goya were important precursors of Realism in their respective media. However, Romantic styles, now often representing the established and safe style against which Realists rebelled, continued to flourish in many fields for the rest of the century and beyond. In music such works from after about 1850 are referred to by some writers as "Late Romantic" and by others as "Neoromantic" or "Postromantic", but other fields do not usually use these terms; in English literature and painting the convenient term "Victorian" avoids having to characterise the period further.

In northern Europe, the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, and some art became more conventionally political and polemical as its creators engaged polemically with the world as it was. Elsewhere, including in very different ways the United States and Russia, feelings that great change was underway or just about to come were still possible. Displays of intense emotion in art remained prominent, as did the exotic and historical settings pioneered by the Romantics, but experimentation with form and technique was generally reduced, often replaced with meticulous technique, as in the poems of Tennyson or many paintings. If not realist, late 19th-century art was often extremely detailed, and pride was taken in adding authentic details in a way that earlier Romantics did not trouble with. Many Romantic ideas about the nature and purpose of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often underlie modern views, despite opposition from theorists.

Germany

Title page of Volume III of Des Knaben Wunderhorn, 1808

An early German influence came from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose 1774 novel The Sorrows of Young Werther had young men throughout Europe emulating its protagonist, a young artist with a very sensitive and passionate temperament. At that time Germany was a multitude of small separate states, and Goethe's works would have a seminal influence in developing a unifying sense of nationalism.[citation needed] Another philosophic influence came from the German idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, making Jena (where Fichte lived, as well as Schelling, Hegel, Schiller and the brothers Schlegel) a centre for early German Romanticism (see Jena Romanticism). Important writers were Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, Heinrich von Kleist and Friedrich Hölderlin. Heidelberg later became a centre of German Romanticism, where writers and poets such as Clemens Brentano, Achim von Arnim, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts) met regularly in literary circles.[citation needed]

Important motifs in German Romanticism are travelling, nature, for example the German Forest, and Germanic myths. The later German Romanticism of, for example E. T. A. Hoffmann's Der Sandmann (The Sandman), 1817, and Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff's Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), 1819, was darker in its motifs and has gothic elements. The significance to Romanticism of childhood innocence, the importance of imagination, and racial theories all combined to give an unprecedented importance to folk literature, non-classical mythology and children's literature, above all in Germany.[citation needed] Brentano and von Arnim were significant literary figures who together published Des Knaben Wunderhorn ("The Boy's Magic Horn" or cornucopia), a collection of versified folk tales, in 1806–08. The first collection of Grimms' Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm was published in 1812.[51] Unlike the much later work of Hans Christian Andersen, who was publishing his invented tales in Danish from 1835, these German works were at least mainly based on collected folk tales, and the Grimms remained true to the style of the telling in their early editions, though later rewriting some parts. One of the brothers, Jacob, published in 1835 Deutsche Mythologie, a long academic work on Germanic mythology.[52] Another strain is exemplified by Schiller's highly emotional language and the depiction of physical violence in his play The Robbers of 1781.

Great Britain

Main article: Romantic literature in English

William Wordsworth (pictured) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature in 1798 with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads

In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and the much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated figure of John Clare; also such novelists as Walter Scott from Scotland and Mary Shelley, and the essayists William Hazlitt and Charles Lamb. The publication in 1798 of Lyrical Ballads, with many of the finest poems by Wordsworth and Coleridge, is often held to mark the start of the movement. The majority of the poems were by Wordsworth, and many dealt with the lives of the poor in his native Lake District, or his feelings about nature—which he more fully developed in his long poem The Prelude, never published in his lifetime. The longest poem in the volume was Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which showed the Gothic side of English Romanticism, and the exotic settings that many works featured. In the period when they were writing, the Lake Poets were widely regarded as a marginal group of radicals, though they were supported by the critic and writer William Hazlitt and others.

Portrait of Lord Byron by Thomas Phillips, c. 1813. The Byronic hero first reached the wider public in Byron's semi-autobiographical epic narrative poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1818).

In contrast, Lord Byron and Walter Scott achieved enormous fame and influence throughout Europe with works exploiting the violence and drama of their exotic and historical settings; [53] Goethe called Byron "undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century".[54] Scott achieved immediate success with his long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805, followed by the full epic poem Marmion in 1808. Both were set in the distant Scottish past, already evoked in Ossian; Romanticism and Scotland were to have a long and fruitful partnership. Byron had equal success with the first part of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage in 1812, followed by four "Turkish tales", all in the form of long poems, starting with The Giaour in 1813, drawing from his Grand Tour, which had reached Ottoman Europe, and orientalizing the themes of the Gothic novel in verse. These featured different variations of the "Byronic hero", and his own life contributed a further version. Scott meanwhile was effectively inventing the historical novel, beginning in 1814 with Waverley, set in the 1745 Jacobite rising, which was a highly profitable success, followed by over 20 further Waverley Novels over the next 17 years, with settings going back to the Crusades that he had researched to a degree that was new in literature.[55]

In contrast to Germany, Romanticism in English literature had little connection with nationalism, and the Romantics were often regarded with suspicion for the sympathy many felt for the ideals of the French Revolution, whose collapse and replacement with the dictatorship of Napoleon was, as elsewhere in Europe, a shock to the movement. Though his novels celebrated Scottish identity and history, Scott was politically a firm Unionist, but admitted to Jacobite sympathies. Several Romantics spent much time abroad, and a famous stay on Lake Geneva with Byron and Shelley in 1816 produced the hugely influential novel Frankenstein by Shelley's wife-to-be Mary Shelley and the novella The Vampyre by Byron's doctor John William Polidori. The lyrics of Robert Burns in Scotland, and Thomas Moore from Ireland, reflected in different ways their countries and the Romantic interest in folk literature, but neither had a fully Romantic approach to life or their work.

Though they have modern critical champions such as György Lukács, Scott's novels are today more likely to be experienced in the form of the many operas that composers continued to base on them over the following decades, such as Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Vincenzo Bellini's I puritani (both 1835). Byron is now most highly regarded for his short lyrics and his generally unromantic prose writings, especially his letters, and his unfinished satire Don Juan.[56] Unlike many Romantics, Byron's widely publicised personal life appeared to match his work, and his death at 36 in 1824 from disease when helping the Greek War of Independence appeared from a distance to be a suitably Romantic end, entrenching his legend.[57] Keats in 1821 and Shelley in 1822 both died in Italy, Blake (at almost 70) in 1827, and Coleridge largely ceased to write in the 1820s. Wordsworth was by 1820 respectable and highly regarded, holding a government sinecure, but wrote relatively little. In the discussion of English literature, the Romantic period is often regarded as finishing around the 1820s, or sometimes even earlier, although many authors of the succeeding decades were no less committed to Romantic values.

The most significant novelist in English during the peak Romantic period, other than Walter Scott, was Jane Austen, whose essentially conservative world-view had little in common with her Romantic contemporaries, retaining a strong belief in decorum and social rules, though critics such as Claudia L. Johnson have detected tremors under the surface of many works, such as Northanger Abbey (1817), Mansfield Park (1814) and Persuasion (1817).[58] But around the mid-century the undoubtedly Romantic novels of the Yorkshire-based Brontë family appeared. Most notably Charlotte's Jane Eyre and Emily's Wuthering Heights, both published in 1847, which also introduced more Gothic themes. While these two novels were written and published after the Romantic period is said to have ended, their novels were heavily influenced by Romantic literature they had read as children.

Byron, Keats and Shelley all wrote for the stage, but with little success in England, with Shelley's The Cenci perhaps the best work produced, though that was not played in a public theatre in England until a century after his death. Byron's plays, along with dramatizations of his poems and Scott's novels, were much more popular on the Continent, and especially in France, and through these versions several were turned into operas, many still performed today. If contemporary poets had little success on the stage, the period was a legendary one for performances of Shakespeare, and went some way to restoring his original texts and removing the Augustan "improvements" to them. The greatest actor of the period, Edmund Kean, restored the tragic ending to King Lear;[59] Coleridge said that, "Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning."[60]

Scotland

Main article: Romanticism in Scotland

Robert Burns in Alexander Nasmyth's portrait of 1787

Although after union with England in 1707 Scotland increasingly adopted English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation. Allan Ramsay (1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form.[61] James Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.[62] It was also popularised in France by figures that included Napoleon.[63] Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from Scottish Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience.[64]

Robert Burns (1759–96) and Walter Scott (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major influence on the Romantic movement. His poem (and song) "Auld Lang Syne" is often sung at Hogmanay (the last day of the year), and "Scots Wha Hae" served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country.[65] Scott began as a poet and also collected and published Scottish ballads. His first prose work, Waverley in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.[66] It launched a highly successful career, with other historical novels such as Rob Roy (1817), The Heart of Midlothian (1818) and Ivanhoe (1820). Scott probably did more than any other figure to define and popularise Scottish cultural identity in the nineteenth century.[67] Other major literary figures connected with Romanticism include the poets and novelists James Hogg (1770–1835), Allan Cunningham (1784–1842) and John Galt (1779–1839).[68] One of the most significant figures of the Romantic movement, Lord Byron, was brought up in Scotland until he inherited his family's English peerage.[69]

Raeburn's portrait of Walter Scott in 1822

Scotland was also the location of two of the most important literary magazines of the era, The Edinburgh Review (founded in 1802) and Blackwood's Magazine (founded in 1817), which had a major impact on the development of British literature and drama in the era of Romanticism.[70][71] Ian Duncan and Alex Benchimol suggest that publications like the novels of Scott and these magazines were part of a highly dynamic Scottish Romanticism that by the early nineteenth century, caused Edinburgh to emerge as the cultural capital of Britain and become central to a wider formation of a "British Isles nationalism".[72]

Scottish "national drama" emerged in the early 1800s, as plays with specifically Scottish themes began to dominate the Scottish stage. Theatres had been discouraged by the Church of Scotland and fears of Jacobite assemblies. In the later eighteenth century, many plays were written for and performed by small amateur companies and were not published and so most have been lost. Towards the end of the century there were "closet dramas", primarily designed to be read, rather than performed, including work by Scott, Hogg, Galt and Joanna Baillie (1762–1851), often influenced by the ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism.[73]

France

Main article: Romanticism in France

Romanticism was relatively late in developing in French literature, more so than in the visual arts. The 18th-century precursor to Romanticism, the cult of sensibility, had become associated with the Ancien Régime, and the French Revolution had been more of an inspiration to foreign writers than those experiencing it at first-hand. The first major figure was François-René de Chateaubriand, an aristocrat who had remained a royalist throughout the Revolution, and returned to France from exile in England and America under Napoleon, with whose regime he had an uneasy relationship. His writings, all in prose, included some fiction, such as his influential novella of exile René (1802), which anticipated Byron in its alienated hero, but mostly contemporary history and politics, his travels, a defence of religion and the medieval spirit (Génie du christianisme, 1802), and finally in the 1830s and 1840s his enormous autobiography Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe ("Memoirs from beyond the grave").[74]

The "battle of Hernani" was fought nightly at the theatre in 1830: lithograph, by J. J. Grandville

After the Bourbon Restoration, French Romanticism developed in the lively world of Parisian theatre, with productions of Shakespeare, Schiller (in France a key Romantic author), and adaptations of Scott and Byron alongside French authors, several of whom began to write in the late 1820s. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics developed, and productions were often accompanied by raucous vocalizing by the two sides, including the shouted assertion by one theatregoer in 1822 that "Shakespeare, c'est l'aide-de-camp de Wellington" ("Shakespeare is Wellington's aide-de-camp").[75] Alexandre Dumas began as a dramatist, with a series of successes beginning with Henri III et sa cour (1829) before turning to novels that were mostly historical adventures somewhat in the manner of Scott, most famously The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo, both of 1844. Victor Hugo published as a poet in the 1820s before achieving success on the stage with Hernani—a historical drama in a quasi-Shakespearian style that had famously riotous performances on its first run in 1830.[76] Like Dumas, Hugo is best known for his novels, and was already writing The Hunchback of Notre-Dame (1831), one of the best known works, which became a paradigm of the French Romantic movement. The preface to his unperformed play Cromwell gives an important manifesto of French Romanticism, stating that "there are no rules, or models". The career of Prosper Mérimée followed a similar pattern; he is now best known as the originator of the story of Carmen, with his novella published 1845. Alfred de Vigny remains best known as a dramatist, with his play on the life of the English poet Chatterton (1835) perhaps his best work. George Sand was a central figure of the Parisian literary scene, famous both for her novels and criticism and her affairs with Chopin and several others;[77] she too was inspired by the theatre, and wrote works to be staged at her private estate.

French Romantic poets of the 1830s to 1850s include Alfred de Musset, Gérard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamartine and the flamboyant Théophile Gautier, whose prolific output in various forms continued until his death in 1872.

Stendhal is today probably the most highly regarded French novelist of the period, but he stands in a complex relation with Romanticism, and is notable for his penetrating psychological insight into his characters and his realism, qualities rarely prominent in Romantic fiction. As a survivor of the French retreat from Moscow in 1812, fantasies of heroism and adventure had little appeal for him, and like Goya he is often seen as a forerunner of Realism. His most important works are Le Rouge et le Noir (The Red and the Black, 1830) and La Chartreuse de Parme (The Charterhouse of Parma, 1839).

Poland

Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-Dag, by Walenty Wańkowicz, 1828

Main article: Romanticism in Poland

Romanticism in Poland is often taken to begin with the publication of Adam Mickiewicz's first poems in 1822, and end with the crushing of the January Uprising of 1863 against the Russians. It was strongly marked by interest in Polish history.[78] Polish Romanticism revived the old "Sarmatism" traditions of the szlachta or Polish nobility. Old traditions and customs were revived and portrayed in a positive light in the Polish messianic movement and in works of great Polish poets such as Adam Mickiewicz (Pan Tadeusz), Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński. This close connection between Polish Romanticism and Polish history became one of the defining qualities of the literature of Polish Romanticism period, differentiating it from that of other countries. They had not suffered the loss of national statehood as was the case with Poland.[79] Influenced by the general spirit and main ideas of European Romanticism, the literature of Polish Romanticism is unique, as many scholars have pointed out, in having developed largely outside of Poland and in its emphatic focus upon the issue of Polish nationalism. The Polish intelligentsia, along with leading members of its government, left Poland in the early 1830s, during what is referred to as the "Great Emigration", resettling in France, Germany, Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States.

Juliusz Słowacki, a Polish poet considered one of the "Three National Bards" of Polish literature—a major figure in the Polish Romantic period, and the father of modern Polish drama.

Their art featured emotionalism and irrationality, fantasy and imagination, personality cults, folklore and country life, and the propagation of ideals of freedom. In the second period, many of the Polish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from Poland by the occupying powers due to their politically subversive ideas. Their work became increasingly dominated by the ideals of political struggle for freedom and their country's sovereignty. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. There developed the idea of the poeta wieszcz (the prophet). The wieszcz (bard) functioned as spiritual leader to the nation fighting for its independence. The most notable poet so recognized was Adam Mickiewicz.

Zygmunt Krasiński also wrote to inspire political and religious hope in his countrymen. Unlike his predecessors, who called for victory at whatever price in Poland's struggle against Russia, Krasinski emphasized Poland's spiritual role in its fight for independence, advocating an intellectual rather than a military superiority. His works best exemplify the Messianic movement in Poland: in two early dramas, Nie-boska komedia (1835; The Undivine Comedy) and Irydion (1836; Iridion), as well as in the later Psalmy przyszłości (1845), he asserted that Poland was the Christ of Europe: specifically chosen by God to carry the world's burdens, to suffer, and eventually be resurrected.

Russia

Early Russian Romanticism is associated with the writers Konstantin Batyushkov (A Vision on the Shores of the Lethe, 1809), Vasily Zhukovsky (The Bard, 1811; Svetlana, 1813) and Nikolay Karamzin (Poor Liza, 1792; Julia, 1796; Martha the Mayoress, 1802; The Sensitive and the Cold, 1803). However the principal exponent of Romanticism in Russia is Alexander Pushkin (The Prisoner of the Caucasus, 1820–1821; The Robber Brothers, 1822; Ruslan and Ludmila, 1820; Eugene Onegin, 1825–1832). Pushkin's work influenced many writers in the 19th century and led to his eventual recognition as Russia's greatest poet.[80] Other Russian Romantic poets include Mikhail Lermontov (A Hero of Our Time, 1839), Fyodor Tyutchev (Silentium!, 1830), Yevgeny Baratynsky (Eda, 1826), Anton Delvig, and Wilhelm Küchelbecker.

Influenced heavily by Lord Byron, Lermontov sought to explore the Romantic emphasis on metaphysical discontent with society and self, while Tyutchev's poems often described scenes of nature or passions of love. Tyutchev commonly operated with such categories as night and day, north and south, dream and reality, cosmos and chaos, and the still world of winter and spring teeming with life. Baratynsky's style was fairly classical in nature, dwelling on the models of the previous century.

Spain

Main article: Romanticism in Spanish literature

El escritor José de Espronceda, portrait by Antonio María Esquivel (c. 1845) (Museo del Prado, Madrid)[81]

Romanticism in Spanish literature developed a well-known literature with a huge variety of poets and playwrights. The most important Spanish poet during this movement was José de Espronceda. After him there were other poets like Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Mariano José de Larra and the dramatists Ángel de Saavedra and José Zorrilla, author of Don Juan Tenorio. Before them may be mentioned the pre-romantics José Cadalso and Manuel José Quintana.[82] The plays of Antonio García Gutiérrez were adapted to produce Giuseppe Verdi's operas Il trovatore and Simon Boccanegra. Spanish Romanticism also influenced regional literatures. For example, in Catalonia and in Galicia there was a national boom of writers in the local languages, like the Catalan Jacint Verdaguer and the Galician Rosalía de Castro, the main figures of the national revivalist movements Renaixença and Rexurdimento, respectively.[83]

There are scholars who consider Spanish Romanticism to be Proto-Existentialism because it is more anguished than the movement in other European countries. Foster et al., for example, say that the work of Spain's writers such as Espronceda, Larra, and other writers in the 19th century demonstrated a "metaphysical crisis".[84] These observers put more weight on the link between the 19th-century Spanish writers with the existentialist movement that emerged immediately after. According to Richard Caldwell, the writers that we now identify with Spain's romanticism were actually precursors to those who galvanized the literary movement that emerged in the 1920s.[85] This notion is the subject of debate for there are authors who stress that Spain's romanticism is one of the earliest in Europe,[86] while some assert that Spain really had no period of literary romanticism.[87] This controversy underscores a certain uniqueness to Spanish Romanticism in comparison to its European counterparts.

Portugal

Portuguese poet, novelist, politician and playwright Almeida Garrett (1799–1854)

Romanticism began in Portugal with the publication of the poem Camões (1825), by Almeida Garrett, who was raised by his uncle D. Alexandre, bishop of Angra, in the precepts of Neoclassicism, which can be observed in his early work. The author himself confesses (in Camões' preface) that he voluntarily refused to follow the principles of epic poetry enunciated by Aristotle in his Poetics, as he did the same to Horace's Ars Poetica. Almeida Garrett had participated in the 1820 Liberal Revolution, which caused him to exile himself in England in 1823 and then in France, after the Vila-Francada. While living in Great Britain, he had contacts with the Romantic movement and read authors such as Shakespeare, Scott, Ossian, Byron, Hugo, Lamartine and de Staël, at the same time visiting feudal castles and ruins of Gothic churches and abbeys, which would be reflected in his writings. In 1838, he presented Um Auto de Gil Vicente ("A Play by Gil Vicente"), in an attempt to create a new national theatre, free of Greco-Roman and foreign influence. But his masterpiece would be Frei Luís de Sousa (1843), named by himself as a "Romantic drama" and it was acclaimed as an exceptional work, dealing with themes as national independence, faith, justice and love. He was also deeply interested in Portuguese folkloric verse, which resulted in the publication of Romanceiro ("Traditional Portuguese Ballads") (1843), that recollect a great number of ancient popular ballads, known as "romances" or "rimances", in redondilha maior verse form, that contained stories of chivalry, life of saints, crusades, courtly love, etc. He wrote the novels Viagens na Minha Terra, O Arco de Sant'Ana and Helena.[88][89][90]

Alexandre Herculano is, alongside Almeida Garrett, one of the founders of Portuguese Romanticism. He too was forced to exile to Great Britain and France because of his liberal ideals. All of his poetry and prose are (unlike Almeida Garrett's) entirely Romantic, rejecting Greco-Roman myth and history. He sought inspiration in medieval Portuguese poems and chronicles as in the Bible. His output is vast and covers many different genres, such as historical essays, poetry, novels, opuscules and theatre, where he brings back a whole world of Portuguese legends, tradition and history, especially in Eurico, o Presbítero ("Eurico, the Priest") and Lendas e Narrativas ("Legends and Narratives"). His work was influenced by Chateaubriand, Schiller, Klopstock, Walter Scott and the Old Testament Psalms.[91]

António Feliciano de Castilho made the case for Ultra-Romanticism, publishing the poems A Noite no Castelo ("Night in the Castle") and Os Ciúmes do Bardo ("The Jealousy of the Bard"), both in 1836, and the drama Camões. He became an unquestionable master for successive Ultra-Romantic generations, whose influence would not be challenged until the famous Coimbra Question. He also created polemics by translating Goethe's Faust without knowing German, but using French versions of the play. Other notable figures of Portuguese Romanticism are the famous novelists Camilo Castelo Branco and Júlio Dinis, and Soares de Passos, Bulhão Pato and Pinheiro Chagas.[90]

Romantic style would be revived in the beginning of the 20th century, notably through the works of poets linked to the Portuguese Renaissance, such as Teixeira de Pascoais, Jaime Cortesão, Mário Beirão, among others, who can be considered Neo-Romantics. An early Portuguese expression of Romanticism is found already in poets such as Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage (especially in his sonnets dated at the end of the 18th century) and Leonor de Almeida Portugal, Marquise of Alorna.[90]

Italy

Italian poet Isabella di Morra, sometimes cited as a precursor of Romantic poets[92]

Romanticism in Italian literature was a minor movement although some important works were produced; it began officially in 1816 when Germaine de Staël wrote an article in the journal Biblioteca italiana called "Sulla maniera e l'utilità delle traduzioni", inviting Italian people to reject Neoclassicism and to study new authors from other countries. Before that date, Ugo Foscolo had already published poems anticipating Romantic themes. The most important Romantic writers were Ludovico di Breme, Pietro Borsieri and Giovanni Berchet.[93] Better known authors such as Alessandro Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi were influenced by Enlightenment as well as by Romanticism and Classicism.[94] An Italian romanticist writer who produced works in various genres, including short stories and novels (such as Ricciarda o i Nurra e i Cabras), was the Piedmontese Giuseppe Botero (1815-1885), devoting much of his career to Sardinian literature.[95]

South America

A print exemplifying the contrast between neoclassical vs. romantic styles of landscape and architecture (or the "Grecian" and the "Gothic" as they are termed here), 1816

Spanish-speaking South American Romanticism was influenced heavily by Esteban Echeverría, who wrote in the 1830s and 1840s. His writings were influenced by his hatred for the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, and filled with themes of blood and terror, using the metaphor of a slaughterhouse to portray the violence of Rosas' dictatorship.

Brazilian Romanticism is characterized and divided in three different periods. The first one is basically focused on the creation of a sense of national identity, using the ideal of the heroic Indian. Some examples include José de Alencar, who wrote Iracema and O Guarani, and Gonçalves Dias, renowned by the poem "Canção do exílio" (Song of the Exile). The second period, sometimes called Ultra-Romanticism, is marked by a profound influence of European themes and traditions, involving the melancholy, sadness and despair related to unobtainable love. Goethe and Lord Byron are commonly quoted in these works. Some of the most notable authors of this phase are Álvares de Azevedo, Casimiro de Abreu, Fagundes Varela and Junqueira Freire. The third cycle is marked by social poetry, especially the abolitionist movement, and it includes Castro Alves, Tobias Barreto and Pedro Luís Pereira de Sousa.[96]

Dennis Malone Carter, Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat, 1878. Romanticist vision of the Battle of Tripoli, during the First Barbary War. It represents the moment when the American war hero Stephen Decatur was fighting hand-to-hand against the Muslim pirate captain.

United States

Main articles: American literature and Romantic literature in English

Thomas Cole, The Course of Empire: The Savage State (1 of 5), 1836

In the United States, at least by 1818 with William Cullen Bryant's "To a Waterfowl", Romantic poetry was being published. American Romantic Gothic literature made an early appearance with Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820) and "Rip Van Winkle" (1819), followed from 1823 onwards by the Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper, with their emphasis on heroic simplicity and their fervent landscape descriptions of an already-exotic mythicized frontier peopled by "noble savages", similar to the philosophical theory of Rousseau, exemplified by Uncas, from The Last of the Mohicans. There are picturesque "local colour" elements in Washington Irving's essays and especially his travel books. Edgar Allan Poe's tales of the macabre and his balladic poetry were more influential in France than at home, but the romantic American novel developed fully with the atmosphere and drama of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter (1850). Later Transcendentalist writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson still show elements of its influence and imagination, as does the romantic realism of Walt Whitman. The poetry of Emily Dickinson—nearly unread in her own time—and Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick can be taken as epitomes of American Romantic literature. By the 1880s, however, psychological and social realism were competing with Romanticism in the novel.

Influence of European Romanticism on American writers

The European Romantic movement reached America in the early 19th century. American Romanticism was just as multifaceted and individualistic as it was in Europe. Like the Europeans, the American Romantics demonstrated a high level of moral enthusiasm, commitment to individualism and the unfolding of the self, an emphasis on intuitive perception, and the assumption that the natural world was inherently good, while human society was filled with corruption.[97]

Romanticism became popular in American politics, philosophy and art. The movement appealed to the revolutionary spirit of America as well as to those longing to break free of the strict religious traditions of early settlement. The Romantics rejected rationalism and religious intellect. It appealed to those in opposition of Calvinism, which includes the belief that the destiny of each individual is preordained. The Romantic movement gave rise to New England Transcendentalism, which portrayed a less restrictive relationship between God and Universe. The new philosophy presented the individual with a more personal relationship with God. Transcendentalism and Romanticism appealed to Americans in a similar fashion, for both privileged feeling over reason, individual freedom of expression over the restraints of tradition and custom. It often involved a rapturous response to nature. It encouraged the rejection of harsh, rigid Calvinism, and promised a new blossoming of American culture.[97][98]

American Romanticism embraced the individual and rebelled against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition. The Romantic movement in America created a new literary genre that continues to influence American writers. Novels, short stories, and poems replaced the sermons and manifestos of yore. Romantic literature was personal, intense, and portrayed more emotion than ever seen in neoclassical literature. America's preoccupation with freedom became a great source of motivation for Romantic writers as many were delighted in free expression and emotion without so much fear of ridicule and controversy. They also put more effort into the psychological development of their characters, and the main characters typically displayed extremes of sensitivity and excitement.[99]

The works of the Romantic Era also differed from preceding works in that they spoke to a wider audience, partly reflecting the greater distribution of books as costs came down during the period.[36]

Historiography

History writing was very strongly, and many would say harmfully, influenced by Romanticism.[133] In England, Thomas Carlyle was a highly influential essayist who turned historian; he both invented and exemplified the phrase "hero-worship",[134] lavishing largely uncritical praise on strong leaders such as Oliver Cromwell, Frederick the Great and Napoleon. Romantic nationalism had a largely negative effect on the writing of history in the 19th century, as each nation tended to produce its own version of history, and the critical attitude, even cynicism, of earlier historians was often replaced by a tendency to create romantic stories with clearly distinguished heroes and villains.[135] Nationalist ideology of the period placed great emphasis on racial coherence, and the antiquity of peoples, and tended to vastly overemphasize the continuity between past periods and the present, leading to national mysticism. Much historical effort in the 20th century was devoted to combating the romantic historical myths created in the 19th century.

Theology

To insulate theology from scientism or reductionism in science, 19th-century post-Enlightenment German theologians developed a modernist or so-called liberal conception of Christianity, led by Friedrich Schleiermacher and Albrecht Ritschl. They took the Romantic approach of rooting religion in the inner world of the human spirit, so that it is a person's feeling or sensibility about spiritual matters that comprises religion.[136]

Chess

Main article: Romantic chess

Romantic chess was the style of chess which emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers characterized by aesthetic beauty rather than long-term strategic planning, which was considered to be of secondary importance.[137] The Romantic era in chess is generally considered to have begun around the 18th century (although a primarily tactical style of chess was predominant even earlier),[138] and to have reached its peak with Joseph MacDonnell and Pierre LaBourdonnais, the two dominant chess players in the 1830s. The 1840s were dominated by Howard Staunton, and other leading players of the era included Adolf Anderssen, Daniel Harrwitz, Henry Bird, Louis Paulsen, and Paul Morphy. The "Immortal Game", played by Anderssen and Lionel Kieseritzky on 21 June 1851 in London—where Anderssen made bold sacrifices to secure victory, giving up both rooks and a bishop, then his queen, and then checkmating his opponent with his three remaining minor pieces—is considered a supreme example of Romantic chess.[139] The end of the Romantic era in chess is considered to be the 1873 Vienna Tournament where Wilhelm Steinitz popularized positional play and the closed game.

Main article: Romantic nationalism

Egide Charles Gustave Wappers, Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, 1834, Musée d'Art Ancien, Brussels. A romantic vision by a Belgian painter.

Hans Gude, Fra Hardanger, 1847. Example of Norwegian romantic nationalism.

One of Romanticism's key ideas and most enduring legacies is the assertion of nationalism, which became a central theme of Romantic art and political philosophy. From the earliest parts of the movement, with their focus on development of national languages and folklore, and the importance of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for self-determination of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key vehicles of Romanticism, its role, expression and meaning. One of the most important functions of medieval references in the 19th century was nationalist. Popular and epic poetry were its workhorses. This is visible in Germany and Ireland, where underlying Germanic or Celtic linguistic substrates dating from before the Romanization-Latinization were sought out.

Early Romantic nationalism was strongly inspired by Rousseau, and by the ideas of Johann Gottfried von Herder, who in 1784 argued that the geography formed the natural economy of a people, and shaped their customs and society.[140]

The nature of nationalism changed dramatically, however, after the French Revolution with the rise of Napoleon, and the reactions in other nations. Napoleonic nationalism and republicanism were, at first, inspirational to movements in other nations: self-determination and a consciousness of national unity were held to be two of the reasons why France was able to defeat other countries in battle. But as the French Republic became Napoleon's Empire, Napoleon became not the inspiration for nationalism, but the object of its struggle. In Prussia, the development of spiritual renewal as a means to engage in the struggle against Napoleon was argued by, among others, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, a disciple of Kant. The word Volkstum, or nationality, was coined in German as part of this resistance to the now conquering emperor. Fichte expressed the unity of language and nation in his address "To the German Nation" in 1806:

Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. ...Only when each people, left to itself, develops and forms itself in accordance with its own peculiar quality, and only when in every people each individual develops himself in accordance with that common quality, as well as in accordance with his own peculiar quality—then, and then only, does the manifestation of divinity appear in its true mirror as it ought to be.[141]

This view of nationalism inspired the collection of folklore by such people as the Brothers Grimm, the revival of old epics as national, and the construction of new epics as if they were old, as in the Kalevala, compiled from Finnish tales and folklore, or Ossian, where the claimed ancient roots were invented. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people. For instance, the Brothers Grimm rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by Charles Perrault, which they thought proved they were not truly German tales;[142] Sleeping Beauty survived in their collection because the tale of Brynhildr convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German. Vuk Karadžić contributed to Serbian folk literature, using peasant culture as the foundation. He regarded the oral literature of the peasants as an integral part of Serbian culture, compiling it to use in his collections of folk songs, tales and proverbs, as well as the first dictionary of vernacular Serbian.[143] Similar projects were undertaken by the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[144]

Polish nationalism and messianism

The November Uprising (1830–31), in the Kingdom of Poland, against the Russian Empire

Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently failed to restore its independence when Russia's army crushed the Polish Uprising under Nicholas I. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was Adam Mickiewicz, who developed an idea that Poland was the Messiah of Nations, predestined to suffer just as Jesus had suffered to save all the people. The Polish self-image as a "Christ among nations" or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of Christendom and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major promoter of Polish culture. The partitions came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the security for Western civilization. Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama Dziady (directed against the Russians), where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In Books of the Polish Nation and Polish Pilgrimage Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II, individualist and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic, messianistic and Christian vision in part III of the poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on Slavic pagan and occult elements found in the drama. In his book Mickiewicz hermetyczny he writes about hermetic, theosophic and alchemical philosophy on the book as well as Masonic symbols.

Emerging Romanticism in the 18th century

Joseph Vernet, 1759, Shipwreck; the 18th-century "sublime"
Joseph Wright, 1774, Cave at evening, Smith College Museum of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts
Henry Fuseli, 1781, The Nightmare, a classical artist whose themes often anticipate the Romantic
Philip James de Loutherbourg, Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, a key location of the English Industrial Revolution

French Romantic painting

Théodore Géricault, The Charging Chasseur, c. 1812
Ingres, The Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 1818, one of his Troubadour style works
Eugène Delacroix, Collision of Moorish Horsemen, 1843–44
Eugène Delacroix, The Bride of Abydos, 1857, after the poem by Byron

Other

Joseph Anton Koch, Waterfalls at Subiaco, 1812–1813, a "classical" landscape to art historians
James Ward, 1814–1815, Gordale Scar
John Constable, 1821, The Hay Wain, one of Constable's large "six footers"
J. C. Dahl, 1826, Eruption of Vesuvius, by Friedrich's closest follower
William Blake, c. 1824–27, The Wood of the Self-Murderers: The Harpies and the Suicides, Tate
Karl Bryullov, The Last Day of Pompeii, 1833, The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia
Isaac Levitan, Pacific, 1898, State Russian Museum, St.Petersburg
J. M. W. Turner, The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons (1835), Philadelphia Museum of Art
Hans Gude, Winter Afternoon, 1847, National Gallery of Norway, Oslo
Ivan Aivazovsky, 1850, The Ninth Wave, Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
John Martin, 1852, The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Laing Art Gallery
Frederic Edwin Church, 1860, Twilight in the Wilderness, Cleveland Museum of Art
Albert Bierstadt, 1863, The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak

Jane Austen
Nikoloz Baratashvili
Prosper Mérimée
Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
William Blake
Charlotte Brontë
Emily Brontë
Anne Brontë
Robert Burns
Lord Byron
Thomas Carlyle
Alexander Chavchavadze
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Emily Dickinson
Alexandre Dumas
Maria Edgeworth
Joseph von Eichendorff
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Mihai Eminescu
Ugo Foscolo
Aleksander Fredro
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Nikolai Gogol
Brothers Grimm
Wilhelm Hauff
Nathaniel Hawthorne
E. T. A. Hoffmann
Victor Hugo
Washington Irving
John Keats
Zygmunt Krasiński
Józef Ignacy Kraszewski
Herman Melville
Adam Mickiewicz
Novalis
Cyprian Kamil Norwid
Mikhail Lermontov
Alessandro Manzoni
Gérard de Nerval
Grigol Orbeliani
Petar II Petrović-Njegoš
Edgar Allan Poe
Alexander Pushkin
Ion Heliade Rădulescu
Mary Robinson
George Sand
August Wilhelm von Schlegel
Friedrich von Schlegel
Walter Scott
Mary Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Juliusz Słowacki
Henry David Thoreau
Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder
William Wordsworth

Gerald Abraham
M. H. Abrams
Donald Ault
Jacques Barzun
Frederick C. Beiser
Ian Bent
Isaiah Berlin
Tim Blanning
Harold Bloom
Friedrich Blume
James Chandler
Jeffrey N. Cox
Carl Dahlhaus
Northrop Frye
Maria Janion
Peter Kitson
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe
Arthur Oncken Lovejoy
Paul de Man
Tilar J. Mazzeo
Jerome McGann
Anne K. Mellor
Jean-Luc Nancy
Ashton Nichols
Leon Plantinga
Christopher Ricks
Charles Rosen
René Wellek
Susan J. Wolfson

Clandestine literature
Goethean science
Humboldtian science
Sentimentalism (literature)

The Academy
Positivism
Utilitarianism

Coleridge's theory of life
Dark Romanticism
List of romantics
Mal du siècle
Middle Ages in history
Neo-romanticism
- Post-romanticism
Opium and Romanticism
Plagiarism and Literary Property in the Romantic Period
Romantic ballet
Romantic epistemology
Romantic hero
Romantic medicine
Romantic poetry
- List of Romantic poets

Arts and Crafts movement
Decadent movement
Düsseldorf School
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Vegetarianism and Romanticism
Underground culture

^ Damrosch, Leopold (1985). Adventures in English Literature. Orlando, Florida: Holt McDougal. pp. 405–424. ISBN 0153350458.
^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Romanticism. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 13 October 2005. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
^ Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). ""Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism". Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Archived from the original on May 13, 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-14.
^ David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967)
^ Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational experience (1987) ch. 12 on Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
^ Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2005 149(3): 304–15
^ Morrow, John (2011). "Romanticism and political thought in the early 19th century" (PDF). In Stedman Jones, Gareth; Claeys, Gregory (eds.). The Cambridge History of Nineteenth-Century Political Thought. The Cambridge History of Political Thought. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–76. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521430562. ISBN 978-0-511-97358-1. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
^ Coleman, Jon T. (2020). Nature Shock: Getting Lost in America. Yale University Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-300-22714-7.
^ Barnes, Barbara A. (2006). Global Extremes: Spectacles of Wilderness Adventure, Endless Frontiers, and American Dreams. Santa Cruz: University of California Press. p. 51.
^ Perpinya, Núria. Ruins, Nostalgia and Ugliness. Five Romantic perceptions of Middle Ages and a spoon of Game of Thrones and Avant-garde oddity. Berlin: Logos Verlag. 2014
^ Hamilton, Paul (2016). The Oxford Handbook of European Romanticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-19-969638-3.
^ Blechman, Max (1999). Revolutionary Romanticism: A Drunken Boat Anthology. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0-87286-351-4.
^ "'A remarkable thing,' continued Bazarov, 'these funny old Romantics! They work up their nervous system into a state of agitation, then, of course, their equilibrium is upset.'" (Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, chap. 4 [1862])
^ Szabolcsi, B. (1970). "The Decline of Romanticism: End of the Century, Turn of the Century-- Introductory Sketch of an Essay". Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 12 (1/4): 263–289. doi:10.2307/901360. JSTOR 901360.
^ Novotny, 96
^ From the Preface to the 2nd edition of Lyrical Ballads, quoted Day, 2
^ Day, 3
^ Ruthven (2001) p. 40 quote: "Romantic ideology of literary authorship, which conceives of the text as an autonomous object produced by an individual genius."
^ Spearing (1987) quote: "Surprising as it may seem to us, living after the Romantic movement has transformed older ideas about literature, in the Middle Ages authority was prized more highly than originality."
^ Eco (1994) p. 95 quote: Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from nothingness", with its techniques of collage, mustachios on the Mona Lisa, art about art, and so on.
^ Waterhouse (1926), throughout; Smith (1924); Millen, Jessica Romantic Creativity and the Ideal of Originality: A Contextual Analysis, in Cross-sections, The Bruce Hall Academic Journal – Volume VI, 2010 PDF; Forest Pyle, The Ideology of Imagination: Subject and Society in the Discourse of Romanticism (Stanford University Press, 1995) p. 28.
^ 1963–, Breckman, Warren (2008). European Romanticism: A Brief History with Documents. Rogers D. Spotswood Collection. (1st ed.). Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. ISBN 978-0-312-45023-6. OCLC 148859077.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Day 3–4; quotation from M.H. Abrams, quoted in Day, 4
^ Berlin, 92
^ a b Schellinger, Paul (8 April 2014). "Novel and Romance: Etymologies". Encyclopedia of the Novel. Routledge. p. 942. ISBN 978-1-135-91826-2.
^ Saul, Nicholas (9 July 2009). The Cambridge Companion to German Romanticism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-521-84891-6.
^ Ferber, 6–7
^ Athenaeum. Bey F. Vieweg dem Älteren. 1800. p. 122. Ich habe ein bestimmtes Merkmahl des Gegensatzes zwischen dem Antiken und dem Romantischen aufgestellt. Indessen bitte ich Sie doch, nun nicht sogleich anzunehmen, daß mir das Romantische und das Moderne völlig gleich gelte. Ich denke es ist etwa ebenso verschieden, wie die Gemählde des Raphael und Correggio von den Kupferstichen die jetzt Mode sind. Wollen Sie sich den Unterschied völlig klar machen, so lesen Sie gefälligst etwa die Emilia Galotti die so unaussprechlich modern und doch im geringsten nicht romantisch ist, und erinnern sich dann an Shakspeare, in den ich das eigentliche Zentrum, den Kern der romantischen Fantasie setzen möchte. Da suche und finde ich das Romantische, bey den ältern Modernen, bey Shakspeare, Cervantes, in der italiänischen Poesie, in jenem Zeitalter der Ritter, der Liebe und der Mährchen, aus welchem die Sache und das Wort selbst herstammt. Dieses ist bis jetzt das einzige, was einen Gegensatz zu den classischen Dichtungen des Alterthums abgeben kann; nur diese ewig frischen Blüthen der Fantasie sind würdig die alten Götterbilder zu umkränzen. Und gewiß ist es, daß alles Vorzüglichste der modernen Poesie dem Geist und selbst der Art nach dahinneigt; es müßte denn eine Rückkehr zum Antiken seyn sollen. Wie unsre Dichtkunst mit dem Roman, so fing die der Griechen mit dem Epos an und löste sich wieder darin auf.
^ a b Ferber, 7
^ Christiansen, 241.
^ Christiansen, 242.
^ in her Oxford Companion article, quoted by Day, 1
^ Day, 1–5
^ Mellor, Anne; Matlak, Richard (1996). British Literature 1780–1830. NY: Harcourt Brace & Co./Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1-4130-2253-7.
^ Edward F. Kravitt, The Lied: Mirror of Late Romanticism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1996): 47. ISBN 0-300-06365-2.
^ a b Greenblatt et al., Norton Anthology of English Literature, eighth edition, "The Romantic Period – Volume D" (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 2006):[page needed]
^ Johnson, 147, inc. quotation
^ Barzun, 469
^ Day, 1–3; the arch-conservative and Romantic is Joseph de Maistre, but many Romantics swung from youthful radicalism to conservative views in middle age, for example Wordsworth. Samuel Palmer's only published text was a short piece opposing the Repeal of the corn laws.
^ Berlin, 57
^ Several of Berlin's pieces dealing with this theme are collected in the work referenced. See in particular: Berlin, 34–47, 57–59, 183–206, 207–37.
^ Berlin, 57–58
^ "Linda Simon The Sleep of Reason by Robert Hughes". 12 July 2021.
^ Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, Pimlico, 2000 ISBN 0-7126-6492-0 was one of Isaiah Berlin's many publications on the Enlightenment and its enemies that did much to popularise the concept of a Counter-Enlightenment movement that he characterised as relativist, anti-rationalist, vitalist and organic,
^ Darrin M. McMahon, "The Counter-Enlightenment and the Low-Life of Literature in Pre-Revolutionary France" Past and Present No. 159 (May 1998:77–112) p. 79 note 7.
^ "Baudelaire's speech at the "Salon des curiosités Estethiques" (in French). Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
^ Sutherland, James (1958) English Satire p. 1. There were a few exceptions, notably Byron, who integrated satire into some of his greatest works, yet shared much in common with his Romantic contemporaries. Bloom, p. 18.
^ Paul F. Grendler, Renaissance Society of America, Encyclopedia of the Renaissance, Scribner, 1999, p. 193
^ John Keats. By Sidney Colvin, p. 106. Elibron Classics
^ Thomas Chatterton, Grevel Lindop, 1972, Fyffield Books, p. 11
^ Zipes, Jack (1988). The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-415-90081-2.
^ Zipes, Jack (2000). The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales. Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14, 218–19. ISBN 978-0-19-860115-9.
^ Oliver, Susan. Scott, Byron and the Poetics of Cultural Encounter (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)241pp.ISBN 978-0-230-55500-6
^ Christiansen, 215.
^ Christiansen, 192–96.
^ Christiansen, 197–200.
^ Christiansen, 213–20.
^ Christiansen, 188–89.
^ Or at least he tried to; Kean played the tragic Lear for a few performances. They were not well received, and with regret, he reverted to Nahum Tate's version with a comic ending, which had been standard since 1689. See Stanley Wells, "Introduction" from King Lear Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 69.
^ Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, Table Talk, 27 April 1823 in Coleridge, Samuel Taylor; Morley, Henry (1884). Table Talk of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Christobel, &c. New York: Routledge. p. 38.
^ J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 311.
^ J. Buchan, Crowded with Genius (London: Harper Collins, 2003), ISBN 0-06-055888-1, p. 163.
^ H. Gaskill, The Reception of Ossian in Europe (Continuum, 2004), ISBN 0-8264-6135-2, p. 140.
^ D. Thomson, The Gaelic Sources of Macpherson's "Ossian" (Aberdeen: Oliver & Boyd, 1952).
^ L. McIlvanney, "Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature", Eighteenth-Century Life, vol. 29 (2), Spring 2005, pp. 25–46.
^ K. S. Whetter, Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), ISBN 0-7546-6142-3, p. 28.
^ N. Davidson, The Origins of Scottish Nationhood (Pluto Press, 2008), ISBN 0-7453-1608-5, p. 136.
^ A. Maunder, FOF Companion to the British Short Story (Infobase Publishing, 2007), ISBN 0-8160-7496-8, p. 374.
^ P. MacKay, E. Longley and F. Brearton, Modern Irish and Scottish Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 0-521-19602-7, p. 59.
^ A. Jarrels, "'Associations respect[ing] the past': Enlightenment and Romantic historicism", in J. P. Klancher, A Concise Companion to the Romantic Age (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2009), ISBN 0-631-23355-5, p. 60.
^ A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN 0-7546-6446-5, p. 210.
^ A. Benchimol, ed., Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010), ISBN 0-7546-6446-5, p. 209.
^ I. Brown, The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: Enlightenment, Britain and Empire (1707–1918) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-2481-3, pp. 229–30.
^ Christiansen, 202–03, 241–42.
^ Christiansen, 239–46, 240 quoted.
^ Christiansen, 244–46.
^ Christiansen
^ Leon Dyczewski, Values in the Polish cultural tradition (2002) p. 183
^ Christopher J. Murray, Encyclopedia of the romantic era, 1760–1850 (2004) vol. 2. p. 742
^ "Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799–1837)". University of Virginia Slavic Department. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2011.
^ "El escritor José de Espronceda". Museo del Prado (in Spanish). Madrid. Retrieved March 27, 2013.
^ Philip W. Silver, Ruin and restitution: reinterpreting romanticism in Spain (1997) p. 13
^ Gerald Brenan, The literature of the Spanish people: from Roman times to the present (1965) p. 364
^ Foster, David; Altamiranda, Daniel; de Urioste, Carmen (2001). Spanish Literature : Current debates on Hispanism. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8153-3563-4.
^ Caldwell, Richard (1970). "The Persistence of Romantic Thought in Spain". Modern Language Review. 65 (4): 803–12. doi:10.2307/3722555. JSTOR 3722555.
^ Sebold, Russell (1974). El primer romantico 'europeo' de España. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. ISBN 978-84-249-0591-0.
^ Shaw, Donald (1963). "Towards an Understanding of Spanish Romanticism". Modern Language Review. 58 (2): 190–95. doi:10.2307/3721247. JSTOR 3721247.
^ Almeida Garrett, João Baptista (1990). Obras Completas de Almeida Garrett – 2 Volumes. Porto: Lello Editores. ISBN 978-972-48-0192-6.
^ Infopédia. "Artigo de apoio Infopédia – Almeida Garrett". Infopédia – Dicionários Porto Editora (in European Portuguese). Retrieved 2018-04-03.
^ a b c José., Saraiva, António (1996). História da literatura portuguesa. Lopes, Oscar (17a ed.). [Porto, Portugal]: Porto Editora. ISBN 978-972-0-30170-3. OCLC 35124986.
^ Infopédia. "Artigo de apoio Infopédia – Alexandre Herculano". Infopédia – Dicionários Porto Editora (in European Portuguese). Retrieved 2018-04-03.
^ Gaetana Marrone, Paolo Puppa, Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies: A–J, Taylor & Francis, 2007, p. 1242
^ Garofalo, Piero (2005). "Italian Romanticisms". In Ferber, Michael (ed.). Companion to European Romanticism. London: Blackwell. pp. 238–255.
^ La nuova enciclopedia della letteratura. Milan: Garzanti. 1985. p. 829.
^ Marci, Giuseppe (December 2013). Scrittori Sardi (in Italian). Autonomous Region of Sardinia, Italy: Center for Sardinian Philological Studies / CUEC. p. 183. ISBN 978-88-8467-859-1. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
^ Roberto González Echevarría and Enrique Pupo-Walker, The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature: Brazilian Literature (1996) vol. 2 p. 367
^ a b George L. McMichael and Frederick C. Crews, eds. Anthology of American Literature: Colonial through romantic (6th ed. 1997) p. 613
^ "Romanticism, American", in The Oxford Dictionary of American Art and Artists ed by Ann Lee Morgan (Oxford University Press, 2007) online
^ The relationship of the American poet Wallace Stevens to Romanticism is raised in the poem "Another Weeping Woman" and its commentary.
^ Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture (2008), p. 63
^ a b Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture (2008), pp. 64
^ a b Weber, Patrick, Histoire de l'Architecture (2008), pp. 64–65
^ Saule 2014, p. 92. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaule2014 (help)
^ Poisson, Georges; Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (in French) (2014)
^ Novotny, 96–101, 99 quoted
^ Novotny, 112–21
^ Honour, 184–190, 187 quoted
^ Walter Friedlaender, From David to Delacroix, 1974, remains the best available account of the subject.
^ "Romanticism". metmuseum.org.
^ Novotny, 142
^ Novotny, 133–42
^ Hughes, 279–80
^ McKay, James, The Dictionary of Sculptors in Bronze, Antique Collectors Club, London, 1995
^ Novotny, 397, 379–84
^ Dizionario di arte e letteratura. Bologna: Zanichelli. 2002. p. 544.
^ Noon, throughout, especially pp. 124–155
^ Boyer 1961, 585.
^ Lefebvre, Henri (1995). Introduction to Modernity: Twelve Preludes September 1959 – May 1961. London: Verso. p. 304. ISBN 1-85984-056-6.
^ Ferchault 1957.
^ Grétre 1789.
^ a b c Samson 2001.
^ Hoffmann 1810, col. 632.
^ Boyer 1961, 585–86.
^ Wagner 1995, 77.
^ Einstein 1947.
^ Warrack 2002.
^ Grout 1960, 492.
^ Blume 1970; Samson 2001.
^ Wehnert 1998.
^ Christiansen, 176–78.
^ Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p. 15.
^ Bossi, M., and Poggi, S., ed. Romanticism in Science: Science in Europe, 1790–1840, p.xiv; Cunningham, A., and Jardine, N., ed. Romanticism and the Sciences, p. 2.
^ E. Sreedharan (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000. Orient Blackswan. pp. 128–68. ISBN 978-81-250-2657-0.
^ in his published lectures On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History of 1841
^ Ceri Crossley (2002). French Historians and Romanticism: Thierry, Guizot, the Saint-Simonians, Quinet, Michelet. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-97668-3.
^ Philip Clayton and Zachary Simpson, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Science (2006) p. 161
^ David Shenk (2007). The Immortal Game: A History of Chess. Knopf Doubleday. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-307-38766-0.
^ Swaner, Billy (2021-01-08). "Chess History Guide : Chess Style Evolution". Chess Game Strategies. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
^ Hartston, Bill (1996). Teach Yourself Chess. Hodder & Stoughton. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-340-67039-2.
^ Hayes, Carlton (July 1927). "Contributions of Herder to the Doctrine of Nationalism". The American Historical Review. 32 (4): 722–723. doi:10.2307/1837852. JSTOR 1837852.
^ Fichte, Johann (1806). "Address to the German Nation". Fordham University. Retrieved October 1, 2013.
^ Maria Tatar, The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, p. 31 ISBN 0-691-06722-8
^ Prilozi za književnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor (in Serbian). Државна штампарија Краљевине Срба, Хрвата и Словенаца. 1965. p. 264. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
^ Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 846, ISBN 0-393-97636-X

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Romantics & Victorians explored on the British Library Discovering Literature website
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June 21 is the 172nd day of the year (173rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 193 days remain until the end of the year.

533 – A Byzantine expeditionary fleet under Belisarius sails from Constantinople to attack the Vandals in Africa, via Greece and Sicily (approximate date).
1307 – Külüg Khan is enthroned as Khagan of the Mongols and Wuzong of the Yuan.
1529 – French forces are driven out of northern Italy by Spain at the Battle of Landriano during the War of the League of Cognac.
1582 – Sengoku period: Oda Nobunaga, the most powerful of the Japanese daimyōs, is forced to commit suicide by his own general Akechi Mitsuhide.

1621 – Execution of 27 Czech noblemen on the Old Town Square in Prague as a consequence of the Battle of White Mountain.
1734 – In Montreal in New France, a slave known by the French name of Marie-Joseph Angélique is put to death, having been convicted of setting the fire that destroyed much of the city.
1749 – Halifax, Nova Scotia, is founded.[1]
1768 – James Otis Jr. offends the King and Parliament in a speech to the Massachusetts General Court.
1788 – New Hampshire becomes the ninth state to ratify the Constitution of the United States.[2]
1791 – King Louis XVI of France and his immediate family begin the Flight to Varennes during the French Revolution.
1798 – Irish Rebellion of 1798: The British Army defeats Irish rebels at the Battle of Vinegar Hill.
1813 – Peninsular War: Wellington defeats Joseph Bonaparte at the Battle of Vitoria.
1824 – Greek War of Independence: Egyptian forces capture Psara in the Aegean Sea.
1826 – Maniots defeat Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha in the Battle of Vergas.
1848 – In the Wallachian Revolution, Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Christian Tell issue the Proclamation of Islaz and create a new republican government.
1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road begins.
1898 – The United States captures Guam from Spain. The few warning shots fired by the U.S. naval vessels are misinterpreted as salutes by the Spanish garrison, which was unaware that the two nations were at war.[3]
1900 – Boxer Rebellion: China formally declares war on the United States, Britain, Germany, France and Japan, as an edict issued from the Empress Dowager Cixi.

1915 – The U.S. Supreme Court hands down its decision in Guinn v. United States 238 US 347 1915, striking down Oklahoma grandfather clause legislation which had the effect of denying the right to vote to blacks.
1919 – The Royal Canadian Mounted Police fire a volley into a crowd of unemployed war veterans, killing two, during the Winnipeg general strike.
1919 – Admiral Ludwig von Reuter scuttles the German fleet at Scapa Flow, Orkney. The nine sailors killed are the last casualties of World War I.
1921 – The Irish village of Knockcroghery was burned by British forces.[4][5][6]
1929 – An agreement brokered by U.S. Ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow ends the Cristero War in Mexico.
1930 – One-year conscription comes into force in France.
1940 – World War II: Italy begins an unsuccessful invasion of France.
1942 – World War II: Tobruk falls to Italian and German forces; 33,000 Allied troops are taken prisoner.[7]
1942 – World War II: A Japanese submarine surfaces near the Columbia River in Oregon, firing 17 shells at Fort Stevens in one of only a handful of attacks by Japan against the United States mainland.
1945 – World War II: The Battle of Okinawa ends when the organized resistance of Imperial Japanese Army forces collapses in the Mabuni area on the southern tip of the main island.
1952 – The Philippine School of Commerce, through a republic act, is converted to Philippine College of Commerce, later to be the Polytechnic University of the Philippines.
1957 – Ellen Fairclough is sworn in as Canada's first female Cabinet Minister.
1963 – Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini is elected as Pope Paul VI.
1964 – Three civil rights workers, Andrew Goodman, James Chaney and Michael Schwerner, are murdered in Neshoba County, Mississippi, United States, by members of the Ku Klux Klan.
1970 – Penn Central declares Section 77 bankruptcy in what was the largest U.S. corporate bankruptcy to date.[8]
1973 – In its decision in Miller v. California, 413 U.S. 15, the Supreme Court of the United States establishes the Miller test for determining whether something is obscene and not protected speech under the U.S. constitution.[9]
1978 – The original production of Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical, Evita, based on the life of Eva Perón, opens at the Prince Edward Theatre, London.
1982 – John Hinckley is found not guilty by reason of insanity for the attempted assassination of U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
1989 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules in Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, that American flag-burning is a form of political protest protected by the First Amendment.[10]
2000 – Section 28 (of the Local Government Act 1988), outlawing the 'promotion' of homosexuality in the United Kingdom, is repealed in Scotland with a 99 to 17 vote.
2001 – A federal grand jury in Alexandria, Virginia, indicts 13 Saudis and a Lebanese in the 1996 bombing of the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia that killed 19 American servicemen.
2004 – SpaceShipOne becomes the first privately funded spaceplane to achieve spaceflight.
2005 – Edgar Ray Killen, who had previously been unsuccessfully tried for the murders of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Mickey Schwerner, is convicted of manslaughter 41 years afterwards (the case had been reopened in 2004).
2006 – Pluto's newly discovered moons are officially named Nix and Hydra.
2009 – Greenland assumes self-rule.
2012 – A boat carrying more than 200 migrants capsizes in the Indian Ocean between the Indonesian island of Java and Christmas Island, killing 17 people and leaving 70 others missing.

906 – Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Muhammad, Saffarid emir (d. 963)
1002 – Pope Leo IX (d. 1054)
1226 – Bolesław V the Chaste of Poland (d. 1279)
1521 – John II, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Haderslev (d. 1580)
1528 – Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress (d. 1603)
1535 – Leonhard Rauwolf, German physician and botanist (d. 1596)

1630 – Samuel Oppenheimer, German Jewish banker and diplomat (d. 1703)[11]
1636 – Godefroy Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon, French noble (d. 1721)
1639 – (O.S.) Increase Mather, American minister and author (d. 1723)
1676 – (O.S.) Anthony Collins, English philosopher and author (d. 1729)
1706 – John Dollond, English optician and astronomer (d. 1761)
1710 – James Short, Scottish-English mathematician and optician (d. 1768)
1712 – Luc Urbain de Bouëxic, comte de Guichen, French admiral (d. 1790)
1730 – Motoori Norinaga, Japanese poet and scholar (d. 1801)
1732 – Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, German pianist and composer (d. 1791)
1736 – Enoch Poor, American general (d. 1780)
1741 – Prince Benedetto, Duke of Chablais (d. 1808)
1750 – Pierre-Nicolas Beauvallet, French sculptor and illustrator (d. 1818)
1759 – Alexander J. Dallas, American lawyer and politician, 6th United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 1817)
1763 – Pierre Paul Royer-Collard, French philosopher and academic (d. 1845)
1764 – Sidney Smith, English admiral and politician (d. 1840)
1774 – Daniel D. Tompkins, American lawyer and politician, 6th Vice President of the United States (d. 1825)
1781 – Siméon Denis Poisson, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1840)
1786 – Charles Edward Horn, English singer-songwriter (d. 1849)
1792 – Ferdinand Christian Baur, German theologian and scholar (d. 1860)
1797 – Wilhelm Küchelbecker, Russian poet and author (d. 1846)
1802 – Karl Zittel, German theologian (d. 1871)
1805 – Karl Friedrich Curschmann, German composer and singer (d. 1841)
1805 – Charles Thomas Jackson, American physician and geologist (d. 1880)
1811 – Carlo Matteucci, Italian physicist and neurophysiologist (d. 1868)
1814 – Paweł Bryliński, Polish sculptor (d. 1890)[12]
1814 – Anton Nuhn, German anatomist and academic (d. 1889)
1823 – Jean Chacornac, French astronomer (d. 1873)
1825 – Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie, Irish economist and jurist (d. 1882)
1825 – William Stubbs, English bishop and historian (d. 1901)
1828 – Ferdinand André Fouqué, French geologist and academic (d. 1904)
1828 – Nikolaus Nilles, German Catholic writer and teacher (d. 1907)
1834 – Frans de Cort, Flemish poet and author (d. 1878)
1836 – Luigi Tripepi, Italian theologian (d. 1906)
1839 – Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, Brazilian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1908)
1845 – Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (d. 1920)
1845 – Arthur Cowper Ranyard, English astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 1894)
1846 – Marion Adams-Acton, Scottish-English author and playwright (d. 1928)
1846 – Enrico Coleman, Italian painter (d. 1911)[13]
1850 – Daniel Carter Beard, American author and illustrator, co-founded the Boy Scouts of America (d. 1941)
1858 – Giuseppe De Sanctis, Italian painter (d. 1924)
1858 – Medardo Rosso, Italian sculptor and educator (d. 1928)
1859 – Henry Ossawa Tanner, American-French painter and illustrator (d. 1937)
1862 – Damrong Rajanubhab, Thai historian and author (d. 1943)
1863 – Max Wolf, German astronomer and academic (d. 1932)
1864 – Heinrich Wölfflin, Swiss historian and critic (d. 1945)
1867 – Oscar Florianus Bluemner, German-American painter and illustrator (d. 1938)
1867 – William Brede Kristensen, Norwegian historian of religion (d. 1953)
1868 – Edwin Stephen Goodrich, English zoologist and anatomist (d. 1946)
1870 – Clara Immerwahr, Jewish-German chemist and academic (d. 1915)
1870 – Anthony Michell, English-Australian engineer (d. 1959)
1870 – Julio Ruelas, Mexican painter (d. 1907)[14]
1874 – Jacob Linzbach, Estonian linguist (d. 1953)[15]
1876 – Willem Hendrik Keesom, Dutch physicist and academic (d. 1956)
1880 – Arnold Gesell, American psychologist and pediatrician (d. 1961)
1880 – Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp, English economist and civil servant (d. 1941)
1881 – (O.S.) Natalia Goncharova, Russian painter, costume designer, and illustrator (d. 1962)[16]
1882 – Lluís Companys, Spanish lawyer and politician, 123rd President of Catalonia (d. 1940)
1882 – Adrianus de Jong, Dutch fencer and soldier (d. 1966)
1882 – Rockwell Kent, American painter and illustrator (d. 1971)
1883 – Feodor Gladkov, Russian author and educator (d. 1958)
1884 – Claude Auchinleck, English field marshal (d. 1981)
1887 – Norman L. Bowen, Canadian geologist and petrologist (d. 1956)
1889 – Ralph Craig, American sprinter and sailor (d. 1972)
1891 – Pier Luigi Nervi, Italian architect and engineer, co-designed the Pirelli Tower and Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption (d. 1979)
1891 – Hermann Scherchen, German-Swiss viola player and conductor (d. 1966)
1892 – Reinhold Niebuhr, American theologian and academic (d. 1971)
1893 – Alois Hába, Czech composer and educator (d. 1973)
1894 – Milward Kennedy, English journalist and civil servant (d. 1968)
1894 – Harry Schmidt, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1951)[17]
1896 – Charles Momsen, American admiral, invented the Momsen lung (d. 1967)[18]
1899 – Pavel Haas, Czech composer (d. 1944)
1900 – Georges-Henri Bousquet, French economist and Islamologist (d. 1978)[19]

1903 – Hermann Engelhard, German runner and coach (d. 1984)
1903 – Al Hirschfeld, American caricaturist, painter and illustrator (d. 2003)
1905 – Jacques Goddet, French journalist (d. 2000)
1905 – Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and author (d. 1980)
1908 – William Frankena, American philosopher and academic (d. 1994)
1910 – Aleksandr Tvardovsky, Russian poet and author (d. 1971)
1911 – Irving Fein, American producer and manager (d. 2012)
1912 – Kazimierz Leski, Polish pilot and engineer (d. 2000)
1912 – Mary McCarthy, American novelist and critic (d. 1989)
1912 – Vishnu Prabhakar, Indian author and playwright (d. 2009)
1913 – Madihe Pannaseeha Thero, Sri Lankan monk and scholar (d. 2003)
1913 – Luis Taruc, Filipino political activist (d. 2005)
1914 – William Vickrey, Canadian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
1915 – Wilhelm Gliese, German soldier and astronomer (d. 1993)
1916 – Joseph Cyril Bamford, English businessman, founded J. C. Bamford (d. 2001)
1916 – Tchan Fou-li, Chinese photographer (d. 2018)
1916 – Herbert Friedman, American physicist and astronomer (d. 2000)
1916 – Buddy O'Connor, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1977)
1918 – Robert A. Boyd, Canadian engineer (d. 2006)
1918 – James Joll, English historian, author, and academic (d. 1994)
1918 – Eddie Lopat, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1992)
1918 – Dee Molenaar, American mountaineer (d. 2020)[20]
1918 – Robert Roosa, American economist and banker (d. 1993)[21]
1918 – Tibor Szele, Hungarian mathematician and academic (d. 1955)
1918 – Josephine Webb, American engineer
1919 – Antonia Mesina, Italian martyr and saint (d. 1935)
1919 – Gérard Pelletier, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 1997)
1919 – Vladimir Simagin, Russian chess player and coach (d. 1968)
1919 – Paolo Soleri, Italian-American architect, designed the Cosanti (d. 2013)
1920 – Hans Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater (d. 2017)
1921 – Judy Holliday, American actress and singer (d. 1965)
1921 – Jane Russell, American actress and singer (d. 2011)
1921 – William Edwin Self, American actor, producer, and production manager (d. 2010)
1922 – Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Burkinabé historian, politician and writer (d. 2006)
1923 – Jacques Hébert, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 2007)
1924 – Pontus Hultén, Swedish art collector and historian (d. 2006)
1924 – Ezzatolah Entezami, Iranian actor (d. 2018)
1924 – Wally Fawkes, British-Canadian jazz clarinetist and satirical cartoonist
1924 – Jean Laplanche, French psychoanalyst and academic (d. 2012)
1925 – Larisa Avdeyeva, Russian mezzo-soprano (d. 2013)
1925 – Stanley Moss, American poet, publisher, and art dealer
1925 – Giovanni Spadolini, Italian journalist and politician, 45th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1994)
1925 – Maureen Stapleton, American actress (d. 2006)
1926 – Fred Cone, American football player (d. 2021)
1926 – Conrad Hall, French-American cinematographer (d. 2003)
1927 – Carl Stokes, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Seychelles (d. 1996)
1928 – Wolfgang Haken, German-American mathematician and academic
1928 – Fiorella Mari, Brazilian-Italian actress
1928 – Margit Bara, Hungarian actress (d. 2016)
1930 – Gerald Kaufman, English journalist and politician, Shadow Foreign Secretary (d. 2017)
1930 – Mike McCormack, American football player and coach (d. 2013)
1931 – Zlatko Grgić, Croatian-Canadian animator, director, and screenwriter (d. 1988)
1931 – Margaret Heckler, American journalist, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (d. 2018)
1931 – David Kushnir, Israeli Olympic long-jumper (d. 2020)
1932 – Bernard Ingham, English journalist and civil servant
1932 – Lalo Schifrin, Argentinian pianist, composer, and conductor
1932 – O.C. Smith, American R&B/jazz singer (d. 2001)
1933 – Bernie Kopell, American actor and comedian
1935 – Françoise Sagan, French author and playwright (d. 2004)
1937 – John Edrich, English cricketer and coach (d. 2020)
1938 – Don Black, English songwriter
1938 – John W. Dower, American historian and author
1938 – Michael M. Richter, German mathematician and computer scientist (d. 2020)
1940 – Mariette Hartley, American actress and television personality
1940 – Michael Ruse, Canadian philosopher and academic
1941 – Aloysius Paul D'Souza, Indian bishop
1941 – Joe Flaherty, American-Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter
1941 – Lyman Ward, Canadian actor
1942 – Clive Brooke, Baron Brooke of Alverthorpe, English businessman and politician
1942 – Marjorie Margolies, American journalist and politician
1942 – Henry S. Taylor, American author and poet
1942 – Flaviano Vicentini, Italian cyclist (d. 2002)[22]
1942 – Togo D. West, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs (d. 2018)
1943 – Eumir Deodato, Brazilian pianist, composer, and producer
1943 – Diane Marleau, Canadian accountant and politician, Canadian Minister of Health (d. 2013)
1943 – Brian Sternberg, American pole vaulter (d. 2013)
1944 – Ray Davies, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1944 – Jon Hiseman, English drummer (d. 2018)[23]
1944 – Tony Scott, English-American director and producer (d. 2012)
1945 – Robert Dewar, English-American computer scientist and academic (d. 2015)
1945 – Adam Zagajewski, Polish author and poet (d. 2021)
1946 – Per Eklund, Swedish race car driver
1946 – Kate Hoey, Northern Irish-British academic and politician, Minister for Sport and the Olympics
1946 – Brenda Holloway, American singer-songwriter
1946 – Trond Kirkvaag, Norwegian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2007)
1946 – Malcolm Rifkind, Scottish lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland
1946 – Maurice Saatchi, Baron Saatchi, Iraqi-British businessman, founded M&C Saatchi and Saatchi & Saatchi
1947 – Meredith Baxter, American actress
1947 – Shirin Ebadi, Iranian lawyer, judge, and activist, Nobel Prize laureate[24]
1947 – Michael Gross, American actor
1947 – Joey Molland, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
1947 – Wade Phillips, American football coach
1947 – Fernando Savater, Spanish philosopher and author
1948 – Jovan Aćimović, Serbian footballer and manager
1948 – Ian McEwan, British novelist and screenwriter[25]
1948 – Andrzej Sapkowski, Polish author and translator
1948 – Philippe Sarde, French composer and conductor
1949 – John Agard, Guyanese-English author, poet, and playwright
1949 – Derek Emslie, Lord Kingarth, Scottish lawyer and judge
1950 – Anne Carson, Canadian poet and academic
1950 – Joey Kramer, American rock drummer and songwriter
1950 – Enn Reitel, Scottish actor and screenwriter
1950 – Trygve Thue, Norwegian guitarist and record producer
1950 – John Paul Young, Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter
1951 – Jim Douglas, American academic and politician, 80th Governor of Vermont
1951 – Terence Etherton, English lawyer and judge
1951 – Alan Hudson, English footballer
1951 – Nils Lofgren, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1951 – Lenore Manderson, Australian anthropologist and academic
1951 – Mona-Lisa Pursiainen, Finnish sprinter (d. 2000)
1952 – Judith Bingham, English singer-songwriter
1952 – Jeremy Coney, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster
1952 – Patrick Dunleavy, English political scientist and academic
1952 – Kōichi Mashimo, Japanese director and screenwriter
1953 – Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani politician, Prime Minister of Pakistan (d. 2007)[26]
1953 – Augustus Pablo, Jamaican producer and musician (d. 1999)[27]
1954 – Már Guðmundsson, Icelandic economist, former Governor of Central Bank of Iceland
1954 – Mark Kimmitt, American general and politician, 16th Assistant Secretary, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs
1954 – Robert Menasse, Austrian author and academic
1955 – Tim Bray, Canadian software developer and businessman
1955 – Michel Platini, French footballer and manager
1956 – Rick Sutcliffe, American baseball player and broadcaster[28]
1957 – Berkeley Breathed, American author and illustrator
1957 – Luis Antonio Tagle, Filipino cardinal
1958 – Víctor Montoya, Bolivian journalist and author
1958 – Gennady Padalka, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut
1959 – John Baron, English captain and politician
1959 – Tom Chambers, American basketball player and sportscaster
1959 – Marcella Detroit, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1959 – Kathy Mattea, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1960 – Kate Brown, American politician, 38th Governor of Oregon[29]
1960 – Karl Erjavec, Slovenian politician
1961 – Manu Chao, French singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
1961 – Sascha Konietzko, German keyboard player and producer
1961 – Joko Widodo, Indonesian businessman and politician, 7th President of Indonesia
1961 – Kip Winger, American rock singer-songwriter and musician
1961 – Iztok Mlakar, Slovenian actor and singer-songwriter
1962 – Shōhei Takada, Japanese shogi player and theoretician [30]
1962 – Viktor Tsoi, Russian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1990)
1963 – Dario Marianelli, Italian pianist and composer
1963 – Mike Sherrard, American football player
1964 – David Morrissey, English actor and director
1964 – Valeriy Neverov, Ukrainian chess player[31]
1964 – Dimitris Papaioannou, Greek director and choreographer
1964 – Dean Saunders, Welsh footballer and manager
1964 – Doug Savant, American actor
1965 – David Beerling, English biologist and academic
1965 – Yang Liwei, Chinese general, pilot, and astronaut
1965 – Ewen McKenzie, Australian rugby player and coach
1965 – Lana Wachowski, American director, producer, and screenwriter
1966 – Gretchen Carlson, American model and TV journalist, Miss America 1989
1967 – Jim Breuer, American comedian, actor, and producer
1967 – Derrick Coleman, American basketball player and sportscaster
1967 – Pierre Omidyar, French-American businessman, founded eBay
1967 – Carrie Preston, American actress, director, and producer
1967 – Yingluck Shinawatra, Thai businesswoman and politician, 28th Prime Minister of Thailand
1968 – Sonique, English singer-songwriter and DJ
1970 – Eric Reed, American pianist and composer
1971 – Tyronne Drakeford, American football player
1972 – Nobuharu Asahara, Japanese sprinter and long jumper
1972 – Neil Doak, Northern Irish cricketer and rugby player
1972 – Irene van Dyk, South African-New Zealand netball player
1973 – Juliette Lewis, American actress and singer-songwriter
1973 – John Mitchell, English guitarist, vocalist and songwriter
1974 – Rob Kelly, American football player
1974 – Craig Lowndes, Australian race car driver
1974 – Flavio Roma, Italian footballer
1975 – Brian Simmons, American football player
1976 – Shelley Craft, Australian television host
1976 – Mike Einziger, American guitarist and songwriter
1976 – Nigel Lappin, Australian footballer and coach
1977 – Michael Gomez, Irish boxer
1977 – Al Wilson, American football player
1978 – Thomas Blondeau, Flemish writer (d. 2013)[32]
1978 – Matt Kuchar, American golfer
1978 – Cristiano Lupatelli, Italian footballer
1978 – Dejan Ognjanović, Montenegrin footballer
1978 – Rim'K, French rapper[33]
1979 – Kostas Katsouranis, Greek footballer
1979 – Chris Pratt, American actor
1980 – Michael Crocker, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster
1980 – Łukasz Cyborowski, Polish chess player
1980 – Richard Jefferson, American basketball player
1980 – Sendy Rleal, Dominican baseball player
1981 – Yann Danis, Canadian ice hockey player
1981 – Garrett Jones, American baseball player
1981 – Brandon Flowers, American singer-songwriter
1981 – Brad Walker, American pole vaulter
1982 – Lee Dae-ho, South Korean baseball player
1982 – Prince William, Duke of Cambridge
1982 – Jussie Smollett, American actor and singer[34]
1983 – Edward Snowden, American activist and academic
1985 – Lana Del Rey, American singer-songwriter
1985 – Sentayehu Ejigu, Ethiopian runner
1985 – Byron Schammer, Australian footballer
1986 – Kathleen O'Kelly-Kennedy, Australian wheelchair basketball player
1986 – Hideaki Wakui, Japanese baseball player
1987 – Pablo Barrera, Mexican footballer
1987 – Sebastian Prödl, Austrian footballer
1987 – Dale Thomas, Australian footballer
1988 – Allyssa DeHaan, American basketball and volleyball player
1988 – Alejandro Ramírez, American chess player[35]
1988 – Paolo Tornaghi, Italian footballer
1988 – Thaddeus Young, American basketball player
1989 – Abubaker Kaki, Sudanese runner
1990 – Ričardas Berankis, Lithuanian tennis player
1990 – Sergei Matsenko, Russian chess player[36]
1990 – François Moubandje, Swiss footballer[37]
1990 – Håvard Nordtveit, Norwegian footballer
1991 – Gaël Kakuta, French footballer
1992 – MAX, American singer, songwriter, actor, dancer and model
1994 – Başak Eraydın, Turkish tennis player
1996 – Tyrone May, Australian rugby league player
1997 – Rebecca Black, American singer-songwriter
1997 – Derrius Guice, American football player
1999 – Ky Rodwell, Australian rugby league player[38]
2000 – Dylan Brown, New Zealand rugby league player[39]
2001 – Alexandra Obolentseva, Russian chess player[40]
2011 – Lil Bub, American celebrity cat (d. 2019)[41]

532 – Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei, former Northern Wei emperor
866 – Rodulf, Frankish archbishop
868 – Ali al-Hadi, the tenth Imam of Shia Islam (b. 829)[42]
870 – Al-Muhtadi, Muslim caliph
947 – Zhang Li, official of the Liao Dynasty
1040 – Fulk III, Count of Anjou (b. 972)
1171 – Walter de Luci, French-English monk (b. 1103)
1208 – Philip of Swabia (b. 1177)
1305 – Wenceslaus II of Bohemia (b. 1271)
1359 – Erik Magnusson, king of Sweden (b. 1339)
1377 – Edward III of England (b. 1312)[43]
1421 – Jean Le Maingre, French general (b. 1366)
1527 – Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian historian and author (b. 1469)[44]
1529 – John Skelton, English poet and educator (b. 1460)
1547 – Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter and educator (b. 1485)
1558 – Piero Strozzi, Italian general (b. 1510)
1582 – Oda Nobunaga, Japanese warlord (b. 1534)
1585 – Henry Percy, 8th Earl of Northumberland (b. 1532)
1591 – Aloysius Gonzaga, Italian saint (b. 1568)[45]
1596 – Jean Liebault, French agronomist and physician (b. 1535)

1621 – Louis III, Cardinal of Guise (b. 1575)
1621 – Kryštof Harant, Czech soldier and composer (b. 1564)
1622 – Salomon Schweigger, German theologian (b. 1551)
1631 – John Smith, English admiral and explorer (b. 1580)
1652 – Inigo Jones, English architect, designed the Queen's House and Wilton House (b. 1573)
1661 – Andrea Sacchi, Italian painter (b. 1599)
1737 – Matthieu Marais, French author, critic, and jurist (b. 1664)
1738 – Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1674)
1796 – Richard Gridley, American soldier and engineer (b. 1710)
1824 – Étienne Aignan, French playwright and translator (b. 1773)
1865 – Frances Adeline Seward, American wife of William H. Seward (b. 1824)
1874 – Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist and astronomer (b. 1814)
1876 – Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexican general and politician 8th President of Mexico (b. 1794)
1880 – Theophilus H. Holmes, American general (b. 1804)
1893 – Leland Stanford, American businessman and politician, 8th Governor of California (b. 1824)[46]

1908 – Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer and educator (b. 1844)
1914 – Bertha von Suttner, Austrian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1843)
1929 – Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, English sociologist, journalist, and academic (b. 1864)
1934 – Thorne Smith, American author (b. 1892)
1940 – Smedley Butler, American general, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1881)
1940 – Édouard Vuillard, French painter (b. 1868)
1951 – Charles Dillon Perrine, American astronomer (b. 1867)
1951 – Gustave Sandras, French gymnast (b. 1872)
1952 – Wop May, Canadian captain and pilot (b. 1896)
1954 – Gideon Sundback, Swedish-American engineer, developed the zipper (b. 1880)
1957 – Claude Farrère, French captain and author (b. 1876)
1957 – Johannes Stark, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
1964 – James Chaney, American civil rights activist (b. 1943)
1964 – Andrew Goodman, American civil rights activist (b. 1943)
1964 – Michael Schwerner, American civil rights activist (b. 1939)
1967 – Theodore Sizer, American professor of the history of art (b. 1892)
1968 – Constance Georgina Tardrew, South African botanist (b. 1883)[47]
1969 – Maureen Connolly, American tennis player (b. 1934)
1970 – Sukarno, Indonesian engineer and politician, 1st President of Indonesia (b. 1901)
1970 – Piers Courage, English race car driver (b. 1942)
1976 – Margaret Herrick, American librarian (b. 1902)
1980 – Bert Kaempfert, German conductor and composer (b. 1923)
1981 – Don Figlozzi, American illustrator and animator (b. 1909)
1985 – Hector Boyardee, Italian-American chef and businessman, founded Chef Boyardee (b. 1897)
1985 – Tage Erlander, Swedish lieutenant and politician, 25th Prime Minister of Sweden (b. 1901)
1986 – Assi Rahbani, Lebanese singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1923)
1987 – Madman Muntz, American engineer and businessman, founded the Muntz Car Company (b. 1914)
1988 – Bobby Dodd, American football coach (b. 1908)
1990 – Cedric Belfrage, English journalist and author, co-founded the National Guardian (b. 1904)
1990 – June Christy, American singer (b. 1925)
1992 – Ben Alexander, Australian rugby league player (b. 1971)
1992 – Arthur Gorrie, Australian hobby shop proprietor (b. 1922)
1992 – Rudra Mohammad Shahidullah, Bangladeshi poet, author, and playwright (b. 1956)
1992 – Li Xiannian, Chinese captain and politician, 3rd President of the People's Republic of China (b. 1909)
1994 – William Wilson Morgan, American astronomer and astrophysicist (b. 1906)
1997 – Shintaro Katsu, Japanese actor, singer, director, and producer (b. 1931)
1997 – Fidel Velázquez Sánchez, Mexican trade union leader (b. 1900)
1998 – Harry Cranbrook Allen, English historian (b. 1917)
1998 – Anastasio Ballestrero, Italian cardinal (b. 1913)
1998 – Al Campanis, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916)
1999 – Kami, Japanese drummer (b. 1973)
2000 – Alan Hovhaness, Armenian-American pianist and composer (b. 1911)
2001 – John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1917)
2001 – Soad Hosny, Egyptian actress and singer (b. 1942)
2001 – Carroll O'Connor, American actor and producer (b. 1924)
2002 – Timothy Findley, Canadian author and playwright (b. 1930)
2003 – Roger Neilson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1934)
2003 – Leon Uris, American soldier and author (b. 1924)
2004 – Leonel Brizola, Brazilian engineer and politician, Governor of Rio de Janeiro (b. 1922)
2004 – Ruth Leach Amonette, American businesswoman (b. 1916)
2005 – Jaime Sin, Filipino cardinal (b. 1928)
2006 – Jared C. Monti, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1975)
2007 – Bob Evans, American businessman, founded Bob Evans Restaurants (b. 1918)
2008 – Scott Kalitta, American race car driver (b. 1962)
2010 – Russell Ash, English author (b. 1946)[48]
2010 – Irwin Barker, Canadian actor and screenwriter (b. 1956)
2010 – İlhan Selçuk, Turkish lawyer, journalist, and author (b. 1925)
2011 – Robert Kroetsch, Canadian author and poet (b. 1927)
2012 – Richard Adler, American composer and producer (b. 1921)
2012 – Abid Hussain, Indian economist and diplomat, Indian Ambassador to the United States (b. 1926)
2012 – Sunil Janah, Indian photographer and journalist (b. 1918)
2012 – Anna Schwartz, American economist and author (b. 1915)
2013 – James P. Gordon, American physicist and academic (b. 1928)
2013 – Elliott Reid, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1920)
2014 – Yozo Ishikawa, Japanese politician, Japanese Minister of Defense (b. 1925)
2014 – Walter Kieber, Austrian-Liechtenstein politician, 7th Prime Minister of Liechtenstein (b. 1931)
2014 – Wong Ho Leng, Malaysian lawyer and politician (b. 1959)
2015 – Darryl Hamilton, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1964)
2015 – Veijo Meri, Finnish author and poet (b. 1928)
2015 – Remo Remotti, Italian actor, playwright, and poet (b. 1924)
2015 – Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski, German soldier and politician (b. 1932)
2015 – Gunther Schuller, American horn player, composer, and conductor (b. 1925)
2016 – Pierre Lalonde, Canadian television host and singer (b. 1941)
2018 – Charles Krauthammer, American columnist and conservative political commentator (b.1950)

Christian feast day:
- Alban of Mainz
- Aloysius Gonzaga[45]
- Engelmund of Velsen
- Martin of Tongres
- Onesimos Nesib (Lutheran)
- June 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Day of the Martyrs (Togo)
Father's Day (Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Uganda, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates)
Go Skateboarding Day
International Yoga Day (international)[49]
National Aboriginal Day (Canada)
Solstice-related observances (see also June 20):
- Day of Private Reflection (Northern Ireland)
- International Surfing Day
- National Day (Greenland)
- We Tripantu, a winter solstice festival in the southern hemisphere. (Mapuche, southern Chile)
- Willkakuti, an Andean-Amazonic New Year (Aymara)
- Fête de la Musique
World Humanist Day (Humanism)
World Hydrography Day (international)

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^ Lentz III, Harris M. (30 May 2019). Obituaries in the Performing Arts, 2018. McFarland. p. 171. ISBN 9781476636559.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to June 21.

"On This Day". BBC.
The New York Times: On This Day

"Historical Events on June 21". OnThisDay.com.
"Today in Canadian History". Canada Channel.

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